Today heart attack questions to ask doctor norvasc 2.5 mg without a prescription, in our world arrhythmia dance company buy cheap norvasc 2.5mg, biodiversity is 171 R A R E E A R T H High (A) Diversity of species (B) Low 0 Increasing number of mass extinction events Figure 8 blood pressure negative feedback 10mg norvasc with amex. If there had been twice the number of mass extinctions arrhythmia treatment generic norvasc 5 mg, would there be an even higher level of diversity than there is on Earth now Perhaps mass extinctions exert a positive effect arteria musculophrenica order norvasc 10mg amex, creating new opportunities and fostering evolutionary innovation by weeding out decadent or poorly adapted but entrenched and resource-hogging species blood pressure white coat syndrome cheap norvasc 5 mg. On the other hand, perhaps just the opposite is true: If the mass extinctions had not occurred, biodiversity would be higher than it is today (see Figure 8. Perhaps the best clue comes from the comparative history of reef ecosystems following mass extinction. Reefs are the most diverse of all marine habitats; they are the rainforests of the ocean. Because they contain so many organisms with hard skeletons (in contrast to a rainforest, which bears very few creatures with any fossilization potential), we have an excellent record of reefs through time. Reef environments have been severely and adversely affected by all mass extinctions. They suffered a higher proportion of extinction than any other marine ecosystem during each of the six major extinction episodes of the last 500 million years. Reefs disappear from the planet after each mass extinction, and it usually takes tens of millions of years for them to be reestablished. For instance, there were no reefs whatsoever after the Cambrian, Ordovician, Devonian, Permian, Triassic, and Cretaceous mass extinctions. It appears that complex ecosystems take a long time to build and to rebuild (see Figure 8. When reef systems eventually reappear, they are composed 173 R A R E E A R T H of entirely new suites of creatures. The implication is that mass extinctions, at least for reefs, are highly deleterious and yield net deficits of biodiversity. Recent evidence suggests that as organisms become more complex, their risk of undergoing extinction increases. Any bacterium can withstand the rigors of outer space (at least for a short period of time), but no animal can. As we move from bacterial life forms to protozoa and then to metazoans, the range of temperature, food supply, and environmental chemistry in which life can persist becomes more restricted. This generalization seems to apply not only to individuals of a species but also to the species itself. One of the strongest messages communicated by the fossil record is that extinction rate is a function of complexity. On average, simple animals are far more successful at avoiding extinction and thus persist (in terms of geological time) far longer than complex ones; the simpler the species, the longer its reign on Earth. Many bacterial fossils found in 3-billion-year-old rocks are identical to living forms found commonly on Earth today. But our best guess is that they may indeed be the same species; they certainly have the same external morphology. Simple bacterial species, once evolved, seem to last a long time, perhaps because of their very simplicity and ability to adapt without resorting to new body forms. Complex metazoans, on the other hand, show far shorter ranges, and even among metazoans the inverse correlation between complexity and evolutionary longevity seems to hold. For example, mammals (the most complex animals on the planet) have average species longevity only slightly greater than a million years, whereas bivalve mollusks, which are far simpler, last an order of magnitude longer. Perhaps a bacterium really is no simpler than a complex metazoan, and the relationship purportedly observed is due to chance or something other than complexity. Determining the length of the genome (and the number of genes it includes) is one such way, and an even easier method of characterizing complexity in a metazoan is by describing the number of different cell types it includes, as initially suggested by paleontologist James Valentine. Zoologists and physiologists have carried out the differentiation of cell types in animals for years. A bacterium or a paramecium has only a single cell, of course, but with the advent of animal life exhibiting multicellularity, various body cells became specialized. A sponge, among the simplest of multicellular animals, has at least four cell types: one for catching food, one for secreting spicules (primitive supporting structures), one for transporting material around the body, and one that acts as a type of skin cell. Vertebrate animals such as ourselves have many more than this; mammals have in excess of 100 cell types. Oddly enough, no one has yet tried to correlate complexity as measured by number of cell types with evolutionary longevity. The latter, also known as extinction rate, has been calculated for most groups of animals and plants by paleontologist Jack Sepkoski. The results seem to substantiate the view that complexity comes at a price of lower evolutionary longevity. This finding suggests that ever more complex animal or plant species show ever shorter evolutionary ranges, whether on Earth or elsewhere. Yet 175 R A R E E A R T H other mass extinction events of earlier times are largely unknown to us, because they occurred when organisms rarely made skeletal hard parts and thus rarely became fossils. Perhaps the long period of Earth history prior to the advent of skeletons was punctuated by enormous global catastrophes that decimated the biota of our planet-mass extinctions without record. For instance, astrobiologist James Kasting believes that the greatest mass extinction of all time may have been brought about by the "Snowball Earth" events of around 750 million years. High First life First animals Susceptibility to mass extinction First Eukaryotes Prokaryotes Low 4 3 2 1 0 Time before present (billions of years) Figure 8. Extinction risk is highest soon after a new evolutionary type appears and then lessens as diversification occurs. To this list we propose adding three more that occurred before 500 million years ago, as well as the current biodiversity crisis caused by the effects of a runaway human population. This latter mass extinction event is presently under way, so its final extinction total cannot yet be tallied. Nevertheless, it may be representative of what happens whenever an intelligent species arises on a planet with complex metazoans. Our understanding of the various events is in inverse proportion to their age: the older they are, the more mystery still surrounds them. The modern extinction that is still under way will also be dealt with only briefly. The most recent of the ancient events (the K/T event) is by far the most studied and best known. There is little or no fossil record of this phenomenon, which may have coincided with the first "Snowball Earth" event. There did appear to be wholesale extinction among stromatolites and planktonic organisms called acritarchs. We 177 R A R E E A R T H believe that they are also the most important, in terms of their effects on animal life on this planet. As we saw in an earlier chapter, the "Cambrian Explosion" was the single most significant event in the history of animal life on Earth. In a relatively short interval of time, all of the animal phyla still on Earth appeared. Yet however celebrated it is for its period of diversification, the Cambrian was also a time of significant extinction. It seems that some of the phyla that appeared in the Cambrian did not survive for long. The Burgess Shale fauna described by paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould contains numerous organisms that seem to belong to no living phylum, and many paleontologists believe that many phyla went extinct in the interval between 540 and perhaps 500 million years ago. Some scientists argue that the Cambrian Explosion was preceded by the first of all mass extinctions, which caused the disappearance of the Ediacaran fauna. This fauna consisted of the odd assemblage of jellyfish and sea anemone-like animals found in strata immediately below the base of the Cambrian from many parts of the world. They appear to be the first diverse assemblage of animals-perhaps early forerunners of familiar animals such as the Cnidaria and various worms, or perhaps an assemblage of phyla now all extinct. In any case, they disappeared in sudden and dramatic fashion immediately before the Cambrian period. It may have been brought about through competition with the newly evolving and more modern groups of animals that typify the Cambrian fauna, or they may have been driven into extinction by sudden environmental change. A second wave of extinctions occurred about 20 million years after the Ediacaran crisis. This second crisis unfolded over several millions of years, and it gravely affected the first reef-forming organisms (called archeocyathids), as well as many groups of trilobites and early mollusks. Again, there is little direct evidence to suggest what may have brought about these extinctions, other than that they seem to be linked to changes in worldwide sea level and to the formation of anoxic bottom water. About 370 million years ago, in the Devonian period, and more than 430 million years ago, in the Ordovician, major mass extinction events decimated the marine faunas of the time. Because our record of land life is poor for both of these intervals, we have much to learn about the severity of these events on land. Impact has been proposed as the cause of the Devonian mass extinction, but in spite of intensive searching, little evidence for such a cause has emerged. Anoxia, temperature change, and change in sea level are the favored causes, but it is hard to account for such extensive extinction on this basis alone. Specialists in compiling extinction records through time, such as Jack Sepkoski and David Raup of the University of Chicago, point out that this particular event stands alone in severity compared to all other such events. More than 50% of marine families died out, and this figure is more than twice that for any other extinction. Estimates of the percent of species (belonging to various families) that went extinct in this event vary from nearly 80% to more than 90%. It is clear that the vast majority of animal and plant life on the Earth was extinguished. It now seems that although several causes contributed to the event, the most important derived from a short-term degassing of carbon dioxide from sediments sequestered on the ocean floor and from volcanic gas emitted during unusually severe volcanic eruptions occurring about 250 million years ago. A sudden release of huge volumes of carbon dioxide directly killed marine organisms by carbon dioxide poisoning and indirectly decimated terrestrial life via sudden and intense global heating. The excess carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere greatly enhanced the greenhouse effect, thus increasing the amount of heat trapped in the atmosphere. A heat spike of perhaps 5 to 10 degrees and from 10,000 to 100,000 years in duration probably caused the terrestrial extinctions. There is still a very poor record for the fate of land life at this extinction boundary, but it is clear that marine life at this time was extensively and catastrophically affected. This mass extinction, like the K/T event described at the beginning of this chapter, was thought to have been brought about by the impact of a large extraterrestrial body, either comet or asteroid. The Manicouagan Crater in Quebec is 100 kilometers in diameter (compared to the approximately 200-kilometer diameter of the Chicxulub Crater associated with the K/T event). This crater has been dated at 214 million years in age, which is older than the age of the Triassic/Jurassic boundary. Environmental changes other than impact have been associated with this extinction event as well, most notably oceanographic changes creating anoxia in many shallow-water environments at the end of the Triassic. It is difficult, however, to see how such changes could have affected land life, which also suffered significant extinction at this time. Although numerous explanations for this event have been proposed, an asteroid impact cause is now largely accepted. Digby McLaren of the Geological Survey of Canada proposed that a largely unrecognized mass extinction had exterminated much sea life about 400 million years ago. McLaren suggested that this extinction was brought about by environmental consequences following the collision of a large meteor with Earth. At that time, McLaren had no actual proof of the impact, such as a suspicious-looking crater of the correct age. Soon afterward, however, the Alvarez team at Berkeley repeated the claim, this time providing a wealth of scientific evidence. What is unequivocal, however, is that these groundbreaking hypotheses changed the landscape of paleontological research and are of central importance to astrobiology as well. The central paradigm shifts were that asteroid and comet impacts can cause mass extinctions, and that mass extinction, through whatever cause, can occur relatively rapidly. Judging by the concentrations of platinum-group elements found in three Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary layers (or K/T boundary layers, as they came to be called) from Italy, Denmark, and New Zealand, the Berkeley group proposed that an asteroid at least 6 miles in diameter struck Earth 65 million 181 R A R E E A R T H years ago and that the environmental aftereffects of this impact caused the great mass extinction. The ultimate killer, according to the Berkeley group, was a several-month period of darkness, or blackout, following the impact. The blackout was due to the great quantities of meteoric and Earth material thrown into the atmosphere after the blast, and it lasted long enough to kill off much of the plant life then living on Earth, including the plankton. With the death of the plants, disaster and starvation rippled upward through the food chains. By 1984, high iridium concentrations had been detected at over 50 Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary sites around the world. Shocked quartz grains were also discovered from many Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary sites. A truly horrifying vision emerged: Soon after the impact, the majority of plants then on Earth apparently burned. Some of the fires may have started from the fireball and searing heat produced by the impact, but the majority were probably set days later as rocky fragments, initially blown into orbit by the explosive force of the titanic impact, streaked back to Earth as bright missiles of destruction. The impact created a crater between 180 and 300 kilometers wide and now named Chicxulub. The impact target geology (especially the presence of sulfur-rich sedimentary rocks in the target area) may have maximized subsequent killing mechanisms.
Walls arteria recurrens ulnaris purchase norvasc 2.5 mg free shipping, ``Proposal for the measurement of the resonant Stark effect by photon correlation techniques blood pressure normal low pulse buy norvasc 10 mg low price,' Journal of Physics B: Atomic and Molecular Physics 9 01 heart attackm4a demi discount 2.5 mg norvasc, L43 (1976) (doi: 10 arteria poplitea buy 2.5 mg norvasc with visa. Mandel prehypertension parameters order 2.5mg norvasc mastercard, ``Theory of resonance fluorescence heart attack vegas buy norvasc 10mg with amex,' Physical Review A 13, 2123 (1976) (doi: 10. Walls, ``A quantum-mechanical master equation treatment of the dynamical Stark effect,' Journal of Physics B: Atomic and Molecular Physics 9, 1199 (1976) (doi: 10. Mandel, ``Photon Antibunching in Resonance Fluorescence,' Physical Review Letters 39, 691 (1977) (doi: 10. Mandel, ``Investigation of two-time correlations in photon emissions from a single atom,' Physical Review A 18, 2217 (1978) (doi: 10. Two-Level Atom Interacting with a Classical Field To evaluate the correlation function, we will use a variation on the quantum regression theorem. In particular, rescaling the solution by ee (t -) matches the initial conditions for the quantum regression theorem, and thus G(2) () = ee () (0)= g g ee (t -), (5. Thus, for arbitrary excitation, the correlation function G(2) () starts off at zero, and for sufficiently large excitation shows damped oscillations towards steady state. We already know the solution of the on-resonance optical Bloch equations in the case where gg (0) = 1 and all other components are initially zero from Eq. For larger excitations, the behavior is similar, but with Rabi oscillations along the way. Namely, we will now derive the probe-absorption spectrum for the auxiliary probe field. The effect of the Rabi oscillations must be incorporated into the time-dependence of Hp (t). The rate at which energy is absorbed from the probe is the rate at which the probe field does work on the system, which is given by Pabs (t) = t Hp (t) = Tr [t Hp (t) (t)] i t dt Tr {[t Hp (t), Hp (t)] }. Shen, ``Quantum-Theoretical Comparison of Nonlinear Susceptibilities in Parametric Media, Lasers, and Raman Lasers,' Physical Review 133, A37 (1964) (doi: 10. Harter, ``Four-wave parametric interactions in a strongly driven two-level system,' Physical Review A 24, 411 (1981) (doi: 10. Mollow, ``Observation of Amplification in a Strongly Driven Two-Level Atomic System at Optical Frequencies,' Physical Review Letters 38, 1077 (1977) (doi: 10. Here, (t) is the Heisenberg-picture (with respect to the probeless atom) atomic lowering operator, which we assume to be slowly varying on the scale of p if the pump and probe are nearly resonant. Notice that this spectrum is automatically one-sided since p is the frequency of the real probe field, which has a time dependence of the form cos(p t). The absorption correlation function can be written as ga () = (t +) (t) - (t)(t +) =: gd () - ge (), (5. Two-Level Atom Interacting with a Classical Field so that eg (0) = gg (t -), ee (0) = ge (t -), and the other components are initially zero. This problem can also be solved by explicitly including the coupling to the weak probe field in the optical Bloch equations, essentially by making the substitution eit - eit + p eip t (5. Using this procedure, Mollow27 gave an analytic form for the absorption spectrum (Problem 5. This spectrum is valid off resonance and for general damping (with or without collisions). Some on-resonance absorption line shapes are plotted below in the absence of collisions. As the pump intensity gets larger, the absorption line shape becomes more complicated, showing multiple peaks. These regions of negative absorption correspond, of course, to stimulated emission of the probe. Right on resonance, the probe is absorbed, but just off of resonance stimulated emission dominates. For larger detunings (and still with no collisions), the line shape is pretty much the same for small pump intensities: a single Lorentzian peak at the atomic resonance. But as the pump intensity gets larger, the line shape becomes dramatically different from the on-resonance case. Also, as we can see from the zoomed version of the same plot, there is also a central dispersive structure in the line shape. The side peaks, however, are reasonably easy to understand in the dressed-state picture (which again applies if ~). Recall also that for large negative detuning, the - dressed state is essentially the same as g, and hence should be more populated in steady state. Then the more energetic (blue) side peak probes a transition where the ground state is more populated than the excited state, hence giving rise to an absorptive peak. The less energetic (red) side peak probes a transition with a population inversion, and thus gives rise to a negative-absorption peak. The central structure is due to two transitions that probe levels with no population difference, and again has a more subtle interpretation. The absorption line shapes in the regime of strong collisional damping are also qualitatively quite different. For small pump intensities, the line shape is a broadened Lorentzian, corresponding to the collisional line width. Interestingly, as the pump intensity is increased, a narrow dip appears in the line shape. We will also assume a weak probe field of frequency p coupling e - e (such that p 0) with Rabi frequency p. Townes, ``Stark Effect in Rapidly Varying Fields,' Physical Review 100, 703 (1955) (doi: 10. Thus, we expect the probe-absorption spectrum to have two peaks, corresponding to resonance of e with each of the dressed states. In the limit of large, we expect the absorption spectrum to be a sum of two Lorentzian peaks. Fortunately, it is easy to extend the formalism we have already developed to handle this problem. The other part of the absorption correlation function is the emission correlation function ge () = (t) (t +). This correlation function satisfies the atomic master equation with initial condition (0) = (t -), which becomes in components this the correlation function corresponds to the same component as gd (): ge () = TrS [()] = e e (). This of course means that there is no spontaneous emission on the e - e transition, as we expect since it is not pumped by any strong field. Written out as a set of coupled equations for the density-matrix elements, we find ~ t gg = -i (~eg - ge) + ee 2 t ge = -(/2 + i)~ge - i (ee - gg) ~ 2 t ge = -(/2 + i)~ge - i ee ~ ~ 2 t eg = -(/2 - i)~eg + i (ee - gg) ~ 2 t ee = i (~eg - ge) - ee + e e ~ 2 t ee = -[(+)/2]~ee - i ge ~ ~ 2 ~ t e g = -(/2 - i)~e g + i e e ~ 2 t e e = -[(+)/2]~e e + i e g ~ ~ 2 t e e = -. The normalized spectrum is then again the Fourier transform of the correlation function Sa (p) = ga ()eip d, - (5. However, we can actually get a closed-form expression for the spectrum: the correlation function becomes ga () = ~eg (t -) -(/4+ /2) i /2 i /2 e e e - e-i /2 2 i ee (t -) -(/4+ /2) i /2 e e + i 1+ + 2 2 ei /2 + 1 - i + i 2 e-i /2, (5. As the pump intensity becomes large, the dispersive components become unimportant near each resonance, and at the same time 2 -. The dispersive components thus cease to shift the spectral peaks in this limit-although they are still important in principle for the wings, since they fall off more slowly than the absorptive part-and the peaks are then separated by, as we expected from the dressed-atom picture. In general, the weak-probe absorption width of two states of total decay rates 1 and 2 is simply 1 + 2, because the convolution of two Lorentzians of these widths is a Lorentzian of width 1 + 2. The dressed states on resonance are equal superpositions of g and e, which are states of respective decay rates 0 and. Thus, each dressed state should only decay at rate /2, which sets the width of each state. On the other hand, in the limit of small and resonant pump (= 0), i/2, and thus takes on the values, which is what we expect for probe absorption on g - e, and +, which is what we expect for probe absorption on e -. The absorption spectra for = for several different values of the pumping rate are shown below. In the case where the pump field is detuned from resonance, the doublet lines have asymmetric amplitudes. The dressed states are an asymmetric superposition of the bare states g and e, which turns out 5. Also, the doublet center shifts, as we expect from the shift of the center of the bare states. It is a useful exercise to understand the placement and weights of the two lines here. Of course, one can now use laser-cooled atoms, where the Doppler effect is unimportant. However, there is a much easier trick for sub-Doppler spectroscopy: the Lamb dip or saturated-absorption spectroscopy. Consider a vapor of atoms where the Doppler width is larger than the natural line width. Two-Level Atom Interacting with a Classical Field W pump v probe (weak) the pump laser functions simply to saturate the atoms, while we monitor the absorption of the probe laser due to the atomic vapor. The two fields are generally produced from the same source, and thus their frequencies are swept together. There may be a frequency offset between them, but to simplify our discussion for the moment, assume they have the same frequency. Atoms at a particular velocity v experience the two fields with equal but opposite Doppler shifts, and thus a moving atom experiences them as having different frequencies. Atoms at rest, however, see two fields at the same frequency, and can be resonant with both fields simultaneously. Because these atoms are effectively pumped with higher intensity than other atoms, the saturation reduces the resonant absorption coefficient. This reduction happens again only for atoms (nearly) at rest, and thus this effect is not Doppler broadened. The saturation produces a ``dip' (the Lamb dip) in the Doppler absorption profile, centered at the atomic resonance, which has a width that can be on the order of the natural linewidth. Of course, if the pump and probe are not degenerate, the dip still occurs, but is displaced from the atomic resonance by an amount proportional to the pump-probe detuning. To analyze this problem quantitatively, we first note that in the interest of precision spectroscopy, the pump and especially the probe will have low intensity to avoid power broadening of the transition. We will thus treat the probe field perturbatively, and only explicitly include the effect of the pump field on the atom. Both of these frequencies now depend on the atomic velocity due to the Doppler shift, and the average ``smears out' these frequencies. Again, we will want the probe absorption as a function of the probe frequency, but the pump and probe are scanned together. Thus, p (after the velocity replacments) is a fixed parameter, while the spectrum is as a function of. Also, in general, since we want the spectrum location relative to the atomic resonance, we will make the plot of p + = p - 0. Thus, we will expand the spectrum to lowest order in 2 as (0) (2) Sa (p) = Sa (p) + Sa (p)2 +.
Letter of Mikola and Jean Longue jnc 07 hypertension purchase 5mg norvasc overnight delivery, former Mauthausen inmates blood pressure terms buy generic norvasc 2.5mg line, on behalf of defendant Streng blood pressure medication and pregnancy norvasc 10mg online, Feb heart attack one direction cheap norvasc 10mg. Psychiatric report on defendant Alfred Richter blood pressure medication dementia purchase norvasc 2.5mg with mastercard, Headquarters Post Hospital hypertension treatment jnc 7 discount 5 mg norvasc free shipping, War Crimes Enclosure, Dachau, June 21, 1947 10. Statement of Hans Georg Winter, a neighbor, on behalf of defendant Bergerhoff, June 12, 1947 170 11. Paul Liebmann, a German civilian, on behalf of defendant Bergerhoff, June 12, 1947 Folder 5 Statement of sentences, June 23, 1947 Folder 6 Review and Recommendations, Feb. Also included are Order of Review and Execution of Sentence forms (Legal Forms 13 and 16) for each defendant, signed by Gen. Box 359 Folder 1 Clemency petition files for defendants Bergerhoff, Dudzinski, Felsch, Leibauer, Richter, Schoepperle, Streng, and Zink Folder 2 Acknowledgements of petitions for clemency, Headquarters 7708 War Crimes Group, Dec. The case concerned nine defendants accused of partic ipating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its sub camps and thereby, on the principle of common design, implicated in mass atrocities and other war crimes. Statement by Alois Singer, Catholic Parish Schoenau, on behalf of defendant Dura, Nov. Statement of Red Cross nurse Maris Schlumberger on behalf of defen dant Schrader, Mar. Medical report on defendant Stier, Headquarters Post Hospital, War Crimes Enclosure Dachau 4. Excerpts from Mauthausen Death Book showing "unnatural death cases" at Wiener Neudorf Folder 3 Petition for review of Case 0005052; Review and Recommendations, Jan. Clay, accompanying official correspondence Folder 4 Review and Recommendation of Case 0005052, Jan. The case concerned six defendants accused of participat ing in operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its subcamps and thereby, on the principle of common design, implicated in mass atrocities and other war crimes. Upon further review, the sentences of Grill, Hartung, and Jungjohann were reduced to varying prison terms. Withdrawn by court Folder 6 Statement of sentences Folder 7 Review and Recommendations, Jan. The case concerned five defendants accused of partici pating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its sub camps and thereby, under the principle of common design, implicated in mass atrocities and other war crimes. Personal questionnaires (Fragebogen) for the accused (Note: No defense exhibits were filed in this case. One of the accused, Bruno Schmidt, a guard at the subcamp Oberilzmuehle, was acquitted. The case concerned 11 defendants accused of participating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its subcamps and thereby, on the principle of common design, implicated in mass atrocities and oth er war crimes. As approved by the review ing authority, all other defendants were given prison sentences: Binzenbach, Deistler and Wiener, 3 years; Euler and Grutzi, 10 years; Kobilke, 15 years; and Geiger, Kramer, and Meier, 20 years. Certified copies of 10 pages from the Mauthausen "unnatural death" register 183 18. Statement of Hermann Schinlauer, June 25, 1947 Box 370 Folder 1 Prosecution Exhibits (cont. Testimony of Czeslaw Kaminski identifying two photographs (enclosed as Exhibits 32A and B) of defendant Maz Grutzi, Apr. Letter of complaint against defendant Geiger, written and signed by Mauthausen Camp Commander Franz Ziereis (German original) Folder 2 Defense Exhibits: 1. Statement of defendant Krause taken at Hospital of the Bavarian Internment and Labor Camps, Garmisch, July 12, 1947 3. Extract from military service book of defendant Geiger Folder 3 Review and Recommendation, Mar. The case concerned eight defendants accused of par ticipating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its sub camps and thereby, on the principal of common design, implicated in mass atrocities and other war crimes. As approved by the reviewing authority, Kuehn was sentenced to 3 years in prison; Kolbe to 5 years; Schiller to 10 years; Freyholdt to 15 years; and Heess and Kuehn to life. Transcript of interrogation of Bernhardt Bendig, inmate at Mauthausen and Steyr, July 1, 1947 17. Ledger (Death Book) showing deaths at Wiener Graben (withdrawn by the court) Folder 5 Defense Exhibits: 1. The case concerned two defendants accused of partici pating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its sub camps and thereby, on the principal of common design, implicated in mass atrocities and other war crimes. The case concerned 11 defendants accused of partici pating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its sub camps and thereby, on the principal of common design, implicated in mass atrocities and other war crimes. As approved by the reviewing authority, all other defendants were given prison sentences: Bach and Vaessen, 3 years; Obermeier, Pfaffenberger, and Stumpf, 10 years; and Latzel and Reichert, life in prison. Joint sworn statement of Heinz Vaessen, Heinz Schrader, Rudolf Roeder, and Franz Smuda, Mar. Personal questionnaires (Fragebogen) for the accused Folder 8 Statement of sentences, July 3, 1947 Folder 9 Review and Recommendation, Mar. This was submitted as part of Prosecution Exhibit 153 at the Mauthausen Main Trial. The case concerned nine defendants accused of participating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its subcamps and thereby,on the principal of common design,implicated in mass atrocities and oth er war crimes. As approved by the reviewing authority, Kleinert and Mohr were given prison sentences of 2 years; Battermann and Hausknecht, 3 years; and Fitzner and Jait, 10 years. Keller, War Crimes East Compound, Dachau, June 20, 1947 Folder 4 Statement of sentences, July 1, 1947 Folder 5 Review and Recommendation, Jan. The case concerned 12 defendants accused of participating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its subcamps and thereby, on the principal of common design, implicated in mass atrocities and other war crimes. Schaeffer was given a prison sentence of 5 years; Nuszkowski and Winter, 10 years; Panhans, 20 years; Stuetz, 30 years; and Wagner, life. Personal questionnaires (Fragebogen) for the accused Folder 6 Defense Exhibits: 1. Statement by Lodovico Barbiano di Belgiojoso, July 19, 1947 Folder 7 Statement of sentences, Aug. Folder 4 Clemency petitions for Richard Nuszkowski, 1948 Folder 5 War Crimes Modification Board review of the case of Alois Panhans,Apr. The case concerned 11defendants accused of partici pating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its sub camps and thereby, on the principal of common design, implicated in mass atrocities and other war crimes. As approved by the reviewing authority, Steinmetz, Stoeckel, and Uscharewitsch were given prison sentences of 7 years; Hirsch, 10 years; and Haider and Fullgraf, life imprisonment. Excerpt from Prosecution Exhibit 8 (read to court, not bound into record) Folder 9 Statement of sentences, 12 Sept. The case concerned seven defendants accused of par ticipating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its sub camps and thereby, on the principle of common design, implicated in mass atrocities and other war crimes. As approved by the reviewing authority, Stumfol was given a prison sentence of 2 1/2 years; Dlouhy and Glissmann, 3 years; and Ricken, life. The case concerned three defendants accused of par ticipating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its subcamps and thereby, under the principle of common design, impli cated in mass atrocities and other war crimes. Otto Koetzle was a capo and block eld est at subcamp Schwacht and its outdetail Moedling. As approved by the reviewing authority, Koetzle was sentenced to 10 years, and Fenner, to life in prison. Accused identification sheets for Fenner and Koetzel with "mug shots" and fingerprints 2. Statement of Stefan Nowak (removed from record by War Crimes Modification Board) 4. Statement of Alfred Kwiecinski (removed from record by War Crimes Modification Board) Folder 3 Execution of sentence forms, July 23, 1947 Folder 4 Review and Recommendation, Feb. The case concerned nine defendants accused of participating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its subcamps and thereby, on the principle of common design, implicated in mass atrocities and other war crimes. Most of the accused participated in evacuation marches from various subcamps to Mauthausen in April 1945. As approved by the reviewing authority, Firsching and Uebener were sentenced to 3 years in prison; Hochwitz and Soens, to 5 years; Ginters and Ruber, to 8 years; and Barner, to 15 years. Duplicate copies are located in Record Group 153, War Crimes Branch Case File 531, Vol. Statement of Rheinische Bahngesellschaft (Duesseldorf) regarding former employment of Ludwig Ginters, Jan. The case concerned 12 defendants accused of participating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its subcamps and thereby, on the principle of common design, implicated in mass atrocities and other war crimes. As approved by the reviewing authority, Domis, Kuehn, and Luetscher were sentenced to 3 years in prison; Jung and Wagner to 5 years; Bernhardt to 10 years; and Strauss to life. Testimony of Theo Otto Bernhardt, June 23, 1947 Box 386 Folder 1 Defense Exhibits: 1. The case concerned 11 defendants accused of participating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its subcamps and thereby, on the princi ple of common design, implicated in the mass atrocities and other war crimes. The case concerned 11 defendants accused of participating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its subcamps and thereby, on the principle of common design, implicated in mass atrocities and other war crimes. As approved by the reviewing authority, Fulsche was sentenced to five years in prison, and Buerger to life in prison. Accused identification sheets with photographs ("mug shots") and fingerprints (P5 for accused Martin Biersack was withdrawn by the court. The case concerned eight defendants accused of participating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its subcamps and thereby, on the principle of common design, implicated in mass atrocities and other war crimes. As approved by the reviewing authority, Brandt was sentenced to 3 years in prison, Malleschits to 10 years, and Kleinguenther to life. Letter of Karel Snedorf (in Czech) with envelope and English trans lation Folder 6 Statement of sentences, Sept. The case concerned 12 defendants accused of partici pating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its sub camps and thereby, on the principle of common design, implicated in mass atrocities and other war crimes. As approved by the reviewing authority, Antis was sentenced to 5 years in prison, Kirschbichler to 10 years, Pusitz to 20 years, Hehl and Mueck to 25 years, Bloh to 30 years, and Barrens, Giessrigl, and Reinsdorff to life in prison. Statement of Georg Streitwolf (not offered to court) Folder 5 Statement of sentences, Oct. As approved by the reviewing authority, Reuter was sentenced to two years in prison, Buetgen, to three years, and Thielmann, to life in prison. Personal questionnaires (Fragebogen) for defendants Kofler, Buetgen, Thielmann, Heller, Lennert, Petrat, Flaucher, and Reuter 11. Extract from "Copy of Report of Conditions at Concentration Camp Mauthausen" (written into trial record) 49. The case concerned 10 defendants accused of partici pating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its sub camps and thereby, on the principle of common design, implicated in mass atrocities and other war crimes. Ohnmacht and Zuleger were civilian foremen at the Hermann Goering Plant located in the vicinity of the subcamp. The case concerned four defendants accused of partic ipating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its sub camps and thereby, on the principle of common design, implicated in mass atrocities and other war crimes. The case concerned 19 defendants accused of participating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its subcamps and thereby, on the principle of common design, implicated in mass atrocities and other war crimes. As approved by the reviewing author ity, Seidel and Wegert were sentenced to 3 years in prison, Moegle to 4 years, Kirner to 6 years, Arndt to eight years, Goebel to 10 years, and Fleck, Klapper, Koerner, and Pfeiffer to life in prison. As approved by the reviewing authority, Obst was sentenced to 15 years in prison, and Schulz to life. The case concerned 12 defendants accused of partici pating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its sub 245 camps and thereby, on the principle of common design, implicated in mass atrocities and other war crimes. Many of the illegal acts were committed in the tunnels and Messerschmidt plants at the St. As approved by the reviewing authority, Erwin Georg Kaupp was sentenced to 20 years in prison. As approved by the review ing authority, Mohr was sentenced to 10 years in prison, and Moeller to 15 years. The case concerned five defendants accused of partici pating in the operations of Mauthausen Concentration Camp and its sub camps and thereby, on the principle of common design, implicated in mass atrocities and other war crimes.
These are very similar to the "Vectors for Current and Future Modernization" the National Defense Panel identified in 2014 blood pressure stroke proven 2.5 mg norvasc. The Commission is nonetheless concerned that our superiority in these areas is decreasing or has disappeared blood pressure chart mayo cheap 2.5 mg norvasc fast delivery. Annual Expenditure on Research and Development (Adjusted For Purchasing Power Parity) 400 350 300 In 1996 heart attack 5 days collections purchase 10 mg norvasc overnight delivery, for every dollar Russia and China spent on research and development blood pressure chart daily norvasc 2.5 mg, the U 2014 cheap 5mg norvasc overnight delivery. It would also gain strong geopolitical leverage over countries that become dependent on Chinese technology; it would reap tremendous military benefits in the form of enhanced awareness and freedom of maneuver 1 5 order 5 mg norvasc, superior command and control, increased lethality, and improved ability to drive future military innovation. The contrast between Chinese and American investments in technology and manufacturing is stark. Policymakers must consider whether to pursue these technologies without limit; develop capabilities to use in some future contingency; seek to develop arms control regimes; or perhaps seek a global ban on particular technologies. First, the United States must better protect and strengthen its own National Security Innovation Base. While innovation is a first step, what matters most is whether new technologies can be rapidly acquired and fielded to keep pace with changing threats. Often, the forces keep the prototypes because they provide capability unavailable in existing programs. Yet if this approach provides advanced capabilities quickly, too frequently these prototypes are not accompanied by the sustainment, training, and integration into existing systems needed to provide enduring military advantage. With greater speed, however, comes the acceptance of risk and the need for more flexible budget authorities. The Department should explore a new, narrowly tailored category of acquisition pilot programs that would push the boundaries on new technologies. This requires a change of mindset as well as a change of procedures and regulations. Currently, to be judged "successful," a program needs to stay on-time and on-budget. Those budgets and schedules are estimated at the earliest stages of the acquisition cycle. If a realistic schedule and budget can be accurately predicted at the earliest stages of a program, how can that program be pushing new boundaries In the near- to mid-term, the Commission identified a variety of critical improvements to U. Finally, these recommended improvements are based on the extensive experience and expertise that the members of the Commission collectively bring to bear. Forward posture is a key component of deterring competitors and adversaries and assuring allies and partners. Speed matters, and the ability to mobilize and move forces quickly is increasingly critical given that the most likely conflicts the United States would seek to deter or win might begin with a small confrontation that escalates quickly. Moreover, once force posture is diminished or eliminated in key regions, it can be especially difficult to reestablish. In the European and Indo-Pacific theaters, where the United States confronts serious challenges from China, North Korea, and Russia, the value of forward posture is demonstrated every day. If the United States desires to 33 avoid military conflict in these regions it should ensure there is a capable day-to-day posture in both theaters to deter adversaries and engage in prompt escalation control. At the same time, the United States must recognize that forward-deployed forces are increasingly vulnerable to attack and strive to make forward-deployed forces more resilient and survivable. Deterring aggression in this region requires establishing a forward-deployed defense-in-depth posture. Given the distances involved in the Indo-Pacific region, the United States will also need to expand and modernize its logistics capacity, particularly its tanker, strategic airlift, and military sealift fleets. Allies can be helpful in this context by investing in maritime domain awareness, undersea capabilities, missile defense, precision guided munitions, and cyber capabilities. To support those forces, control of the sea lines of 34 communication is imperative. As the foregoing discussion of theater requirements underscores, the United States now faces five credible challengers, including two major-power competitors, and three distinctly different geographic and operational environments. This being the case, a two-war force sizing construct makes more strategic sense today than at any previous point in the post-Cold War era. More armor, long-range fires, engineering, and air-defense units are required to meet the ground-heavy challenges posed by Russia in Eastern Europe and while maintaining a robust deterrent to aggression on the Korean Peninsula. In the event of conflict with China, additional air-defense and logistical forces will be necessary to support Air Force operations. Army forces also remain very much engaged in a war in Afghanistan, which-despite often being forgotten or overlooked today-will place further stress on existing structure. As China and, to a lesser extent, Russia invest in their undersea capabilities, the United States must expand its submarine fleet. Moreover, to project and sustain combat power into the Western Pacific and other theaters, the Navy must dramatically recapitalize and expand its military sealift forces. Regardless of where the next conflict occurs or which adversary it features, the Air Force will be at the forefront. It will need more stealthy long-range fighters and bombers to penetrate advanced enemy air defenses, as well as more tankers to refuel them and allow them to operate at longer ranges. It will need additional lift capacity, especially if the United States intends to project power across the Pacific. Above all, it will need more intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance platforms to give commanders the information they need to fight and win. Finally, as the world remains unpredictable and the threat of terrorism endures, the United States will need a premier expeditionary, rapid-response force, so it should maintain the Marine Corps at no less than its current size. America confronts cyberattacks from state adversaries on a daily basis, will remain vulnerable to such attacks in the coming years, and will continue to face cyberattacks from non-state actors. These issues have lingered through several administrations and must be addressed to make the United States more competitive. The administration and Congress 36 should evaluate what operational flexibility is required to ensure the United States can act in ways that are agile, but also prudent, in support of its broader national security goals. The United States should also lead efforts to establish international norms in cyberspace. To facilitate this process, Congress should appoint a high-level commission to review U. That commission should offer recommendations on how to streamline decision-making and bureaucratic processes so as best to protect American interests, deter or respond to malign actions, and still protect civil liberties. This triad, plus dual-capable tactical aircraft, presents insurmountable targeting challenges for adversaries, imposes disproportionate costs on adversary defenses, and hedges against unforeseen geopolitical or technological changes. With all legs of the triad, as well as much of the supporting infrastructure, approaching the ends of their service lives, nuclear modernization must receive sustained and predictable funding from Congress. Sustained and predictable funding is equally important to sustaining the portion of the defense industrial base devoted to nuclear matters. As discussed in Chapter 5 triad modernization should not be sacrificed to pay for conventional force investments. At its peak, planned spending on nuclear modernization, operations, and sustainment should consume just 6. Russia and China are both years into thoroughgoing nuclear modernization programs and have been thinking creatively about how to employ nuclear weapons for deterrence and coercion. Today, however, the United States is again competing with major-power rivals, and space is once again-and will remain-a critical and an increasingly contentious domain. Access to space underpins our ability to project power globally, strike targets precisely, and discern and respond to threats before they endanger the homeland or U. Other nations have noted the military and economic advantages space provides to the United States. At the same time, the increasing role of the private sector is changing the economic and business dimensions of 38 space exploration and exploitation and further challenging U. The United States needs a space posture suited to an era of major-power competition. This administration and Congress deserve credit for elevating this critical national security issue. This Commission believes there must be greater urgency in devising a coherent and coordinated space strategy. As the United States rethinks how it approaches space, it should emphasize five themes: technology, policy, organization, communication, and cooperation. Second, regarding policy, there must be a higher level of clear accountability and oversight within the Office of the Secretary of Defense, commensurate with the complexity and importance of the problem. Third, regarding organization, the United States must develop a space cadre that ensures an enduring focus on space capabilities and unmatched competence in this area. Because the organizational issues in this area are complex, any proposed changes should identify new seams between existing organizations and bureaucratic jurisdictions; consider when space would be in a supported or supporting role; explore how and whether the spacebased capabilities resident in the intelligence agencies should be integrated with military space organizations; examine how to optimize the costs and overhead of creating new organizational structures; and consider how to strike the balance between operational control and man, train, and equip functions. Fourth, although much of the space portfolio is classified, there is a pressing need for more communication and public awareness regarding the challenges we face. Those challenges must be brought into the open through appropriate public release of information. It is a global domain, one with no borders or territory and one where steps taken by a single actor can affect all others that use the domain. By emphasizing the five themes outlined here, the United States can improve its ability to compete and deter malign activities in 39 space and become sufficiently resilient that the military and economic effects on Earth are minimized should deterrence fail. Finally, the United States should invest in research and development 40 to anticipate future threats, operate effectively from space, and enhance resiliency against kinetic and non-kinetic attack. Electronic warfare capabilities will be critical in any future conflict, especially those against major-power rivals. Nearly any conflict between the United States and its most capable competitors would entail significant demand for long-range, high-precision munitions so that U. Inadequate lift and tanker support, a lack of secure communications, and insufficient capabilities and infrastructure are impeding strategic mobility. The Department should also consider whether there is a sufficiently strong "logistics voice" within the Office of the Secretary of Defense given the recent restructuring of that office. Making informed decisions about strategic, operational, and force development issues requires a foundation of stateof-the-art analytical capabilities. This inability is simply intolerable in an organization with responsibility for tasks as complex, expensive, and important as the Department of Defense. This deficit in analytical capability, expertise, and processes must be addressed. Specifically, the Department needs a rigorous force development plan that connects its investment strategy with its key priorities of winning in conflict and competing effectively with China and Russia. Such a force development architecture should provide answers to the following questions: - What are our objectives We encourage Congress to seek answers to these questions through its oversight tools. When developing budgets, readiness must be balanced with the size of the force, modernization strategies, and levels of personnel compensation required to maintain a high-quality force. Readiness is highly sensitive not just to the level of resources provided by Congress, but also to the timeliness and predictability of that funding, as well as how the services measure readiness and the practices they adopt to achieve it. The readiness of our forces has suffered in recent years, due to unfettered high demand on a smaller force, persistent budgetary uncertainty, and inadequate funding. Evidence of this can be found in the testimony of the Joint Chiefs over many years, as well as in increases in mishap rates, including aviation accidents and collisions at sea. The Commission therefore applauds the efforts of the Secretary of Defense, the services, and the entire Department of Defense to improve the readiness of U. But the broader and more demanding those missions are-particularly in dealing with major-power adversaries-the more difficult that commitment becomes to fulfill, as it entails more extensive training for a higher percentage of the force. Additional resources will also be needed to support the exercises and experiments needed to develop and refine innovative operational concepts and incorporate them into doctrine. Furthermore, training for gray-zone operations will require doctrine and scenarios that go beyond military operations. Interagency involvement in such training will be greater than has been the case for counterinsurgency missions in Afghanistan and Iraq. We recommend that the Department develop analytic tools that measure readiness across this range of challenges, from low-intensity, gray-zone conflicts to protracted, high-intensity fights with major-power rivals. Here it is simply important to note that resources alone rarely cause, and cannot in isolation cure, a readiness problem. Readiness is a complex function of having the right people with the right tools and training, led by people who themselves have had the proper experience and leadership development. Lost time and missed opportunities to develop doctrine and experience over a wide range of operations cannot be bought back just by adding more funds. Nevertheless, the Commission emphasizes that sufficient funding-provided on a timely, consistent basis-is imperative to address current readiness challenges. As the Air Force sought to replenish those stocks, it found that the existing munitions manufacturing capacity could barely meet the need. As a result, it seems likely that the United States needs to expand its defense industrial base in some sectors, while also increasing preparations to mobilize that base in the event of war. Perhaps most importantly, the Commission believes that the most critical resource required to produce a highly capable military force is highly capable people willing to serve in the numbers required. That requirement will only loom larger in the future, because it will be necessary to increase the size of the force while also developing the ability to overcome new operational challenges and execute innovative operational concepts. Current trends, however, indicate that the number of people who have the required fitness and propensity to serve is in decline. In April 2018, service personnel chiefs testified that only one in four 17-to-24 year-olds meets the criteria to enlist in the military.
The holy places announced on their websites that the closures occurred due to pressure from the Corona Control Task Force arrhythmia management institute of south florida norvasc 10 mg generic, as they had been content to serve the worshippers with precautionary measures until then blood pressure chart for age and weight generic norvasc 5 mg line. Defiance unmotivated by religion the second category of Iranians that ignored state warnings did so in order to continue with their supposedly private activities heart attack remixes cheap norvasc 10mg online. They travelled around the country arrhythmia and chest pain cheap 2.5mg norvasc amex, especially to the beaches of the Caspian Sea heart attack bpm cheap 2.5mg norvasc free shipping, refused to close their businesses blood pressure chart medication cheap norvasc 2.5mg overnight delivery, and flocked to busy bazaars to shop for the Persian New Year festivities, while constantly critiquing the state for lack of transparency in informing the public about the virus when it first appeared in Qom and its unwillingness to quarantine the city. These acts of defiance can partly be explained as exploiting the weapons of the weak. As theorized first in everyday forms of peasant resistance, this resistance mostly stops short of collective outright defiance and takes the form of dissimulation, false compliance, pilfering, feigned ignorance, etc. The state usually has an interest in keeping silent in the face of such acts, as the alternative would be admitting to unpopular policies or a tenuous authority over the population. Exploiting the weapons of the weak, however, is only a partial explanation for defiant acts by non-religiously motivated citizens. In fact, the private sphere becomes a place of respite where freedom of thought, speech, and action can be practiced in full. First, the public health crisis allowed Prime Minister Netanyahu to break the political impasse and secure his position. Secondly, the government handed new authorities to national security institutions, as growing parts of the Coronavirus public health challenge were securitized. In the longer term, however, as the public health crisis fades, the demographic realities will force Israel to re-open the conversation about national identity and the institutional arrangements that flow from it. The country went to inconclusive elections three times in eleven months (April 2019, September 2019, March 2020). Polling showed that the public generally felt that he was handing the crisis well. Gantz justified this stark breach of his election promise, by citing the emergency situation, and the possibility that under the emerging agreement he will replace Netanyahu later in the term (the parties are still negotiating as these lines are being written). The crisis also protected the Prime Minister from legal risks as most trials in the land were postponed on March 15, 2020 by the Minister of Justice, Amir Ohana, a close Netanyahu ally. The general public seems to trust the security establishment in the face of the new surveillance measures: 55% of Israelis polled in 24-26 March, 2020 reported that they believe that the data will only be used to fight the Coronavirus. Indeed, a plurality of Israelis polled on 24-26 March, 2020, supported the national unity government. Two groups are left out of this identity: Israeli-Palestinians, and Ultra-Orthodox Jews. Their political representatives generally reject, in various degrees, the current national identity as reflected in state symbols, institutions, practices, and cultural ethos. Arab members of Knesset oppose the exclusive Jewish elements the state boasts; while Ultra-Orthodox reject Jewish nationalism as they perceive Jews as a religious group that should not be politically sovereign until the eschatological times of the Messiah. Indeed, as noted, the main opposition party preferred to join a national unity government with Netanyahu after the March 2020 elections, over the possibility of creating a winning coalition that would include an Arab Non-Zionist party. This cleavage is further reinforced as members of both groups are exempt from the draft, and are therefore not part of the security establishment. Indeed, Ultra-Orthodox have contracted the disease in larger proportion compared to other groups in society. On April 1, 2020, for example, aggressive police enforcement of a limited curfew led to clashes with dozens of protesters in Jaffa, the largely Arab sector of Tel-Aviv. The success of the traditional identity model to secure further legitimacy in the face of the health crisis will help deflect, at least for now, two more inclusive models that were put forward in the last few years. The first is a multicultural vision that was articulated, among others, by President Rivlin. According to this approach, Israel is no longer a state with a clear Jewish-Zionist-secular majority as it was. Therefore, numerous arenas such as the public service, local government and education should be transformed to reflect this reality. The second alternative to the current model is a civic, liberal state, a "state of all its citizens". The state would give no preference to any ideology or ethnic group, nor will it support such groups. Both new conceptualizations of Israeli identity are driven by the demographic change to come. As noted above, almost 50% of elementary schools are comprised of Ultra-Orthodox Jews and Israeli Palestinians. Israel adopted some of these changes, but in regards to the core question of national identity, the preliminary phase of the response to the Coronavirus seems to further support its existing identity: a Jewish, Zionist state that relies on a technologyprone, forward-leaning security establishment. Doron Navot for their most useful comments on an earlier version of this paper, and Prerna BalaEddy for her edits. Endnotes 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Israeli Ministry of Education, the Education system 2017-2018, July 2017, p. Smith on nations and national identity: a critical assessment, Nations and Nationalism Vol. The government reacted relatively swiftly to the pandemic, especially compared to other governments, such as in Italy and the United States. At the same time, it is struggling in key areas: containing a rapid spread of the disease in Orthodox communities, many of which have refused to stop congregating in large numbers in synagogues and yeshivas; preparing for the period of Passover, when millions of Israelis will have wanted to hold services and a commemorative dinner with family and friends; and confronting a lack of testing and medical infrastructure in several areas populated by Arab citizens. This patchwork of efficacy highlights the ways in which Israel exhibits both high and low state capacity in dealing with the infection. The Political Effect Netanyahu has been Prime Minister of Israel since March 2009 (in addition to a three-year period from 1996 to 1999). In December 2018, the government collapsed and early elections were held on April 9, 2019. But neither leader had enough support from other parties to put them over the 60 seats necessary to form and maintain a coalition government. On November 21, 2019, Netanyahu was indicted for corruption and breach of trust in three separate legal cases, leading many to believe that his long political career might finally be coming to an end. But the September election had not changed anything; neither Gantz nor Netanyahu had enough support in the Knesset to form a government. Their positions were far enough apart that they could not agree on a unity government that included both of them. By the time the third round of polling took place, the novel coronavirus had hit Israel. Netanyahu was desperate to avoid a trial, since it would likely mean the end of his tenure as prime minister and probably end his political career. But after a long struggle between the two, Gantz was able to garner enough parliamentary support, with the backing of the Arab Joint List, to be given the mandate on March 15 to start negotiations on forming a government. On March 11, the government began implementing versions of stay-at-home requests, and on March 19 declared a set of national "emergency ordinances. More telling, the priority was for a national unity government: 57% preferred that option (36% wanted Netanyahu to serve as prime minister first, 21% wanted Gantz to go first). To that end, Gantz proposed himself as speaker and, breaking repeated campaign promises, pronounced that he was willing to serve in a government under Netanyahu. Under the terms of a draft deal, Netanyahu would serve as prime minister for the first 18 months, after which Gantz would rotate into the office. Even if negotiations are successful, there is a chance that Netanyahu will manage to pass a law by the time set for rotation that brings him immunity from prosecution and trial, thereby enhancing the likelihood that he will stay in power even beyond the date the two leaders set for rotation. There is an even greater chance that developments over the next year and a half will weaken Gantz considerably (his party has already split in half after his desertion), such that Netanyahu might be able to hold on to power with enough Knesset votes, or call a new election in which he and Likud emerge stronger. For example, Netanyahu might survive his trial, or an urgent external security threat emerges that allows him to push off rotation in the name of national security. Netanyahu may be genuinely concerned about the infection, and want to protect the country and its citizens from the disease. But his political maneuvering indicates that he also saw this as an opportunity to save himself from political death. Netanyahu engaged in a series of moves designed to subvert the existing constitutional order to protect himself from prosecution. The decision meant that the courts could only meet for urgent purposes, such as arrest and remand orders. An effort to hold criminal proceedings via video call was restricted by Netanyahu supporters in government to defendants already in custody. His first explanation was that this was necessary to protect Israelis from further infection. The Supreme Court first issued a non-binding declaration that the Speaker could not postpone the vote and then, when Edelstein still refused, ruled unanimously that the Speaker had to hold a vote. Edelstein ignored the court again, and resigned rather than proceed, delaying the process further. Instead, a series of Basic Laws serve as quasi-constitutional laws that have higher status than other legislation. But the lack of a single document makes the Basic Laws easier to amend, remove, or add to . This serves as a somewhat tenuous basis for the courts to exercise judicial oversight over the other branches of government. Since 2009, several of the rightwing and religious parties have engaged in a slow but sustained effort to curtail the authority of the courts even further. After having seen the Supreme Court try to force Edelstein to hold a vote the rightwing parties wanted to avoid, they are likely to renew their efforts. When the Speaker refused to give up power in order to keep Netanyahu in office, the legal norms and structures that have kept the political system intact were further eroded. Thus, the main rightwing and center-right parties have now agreed in principle that the legal system can be ignored when its suits their politics. While the judicial system is not in danger of immediate collapse, further efforts to chip away at the legal and constitutional order are more likely now, and more likely to be successful. That Netanyahu has worked to prevent his trial will further strengthen the Prime Minister at the expense of the courts. If he succeeds in avoiding trial after an indictment, future premiers will exhibit less concern with potential corruption, knowing that there are ways around accountability. It has done so by showing that both autocracies and democracies have imposed restrictions on the public in part to stop the spread of the infection, but also out of political expediency. These measures will have far-reaching consequences on their already struggling economies and volatile political dynamics. In the medium term, Maghreb economies will contract as the outbreak and associated restrictions negatively impact key sectors and lead governments to increase public spending to protect citizens. Interestingly, the pandemic has brought to light important revelations about state capacity across the Maghreb. While all three regimes have successfully used their coercive apparatus to impose lockdowns, Morocco has emerged as a stronger state than might have been expected. The kingdom successfully acquired and produced medical supplies (including protective masks1 and ventilators2), while elites rallied behind the regime by donating over three billion dollars to an emergency fund to fight the outbreak. In Tunisia, where parliament granted the government special powers for up to two months to deal with the outbreak,6 the government is unlikely to abuse these powers or resort to excessive force. Rather, what may threaten or strengthen the fledgling democracy is how the state deals with the economic fallout from the outbreak. These are significant consequences for a region that, despite some positive macroeconomic indicators, already faces deeply-rooted structural economic issues (ranging from overdependence on a low-performing agricultural sector in Morocco, unsustainable levels of public spending in Tunisia, and reliance on hydrocarbon exports in Algeria). European markets will likely fall as concerns over the rising numbers of confirmed cases persist. Finally, the informal sector in all three countries will take a hit during the mandatory confinement period, especially given the partial demobilization of the workforce. All three governments have addressed the ensuing loss of income of informal workers by pledging emergency stipends over the coming months. However, workers who have already lost their jobs are struggling as the stipends (some of which are yet to be released) only partially cover their basic expenses. Political impact On the political front, the outbreak comes at a challenging time for the Maghreb countries, and it will likely lead to new developments in terms of popular contestation and the use of repression by regimes. Indeed, protest movements will recur across the Maghreb once the pandemic has ended, and, in the medium term, citizens and opposition actors will re-focus on healthcare needs, social inequality, and welfare benefits. Furthermore, the freedom which Maghreb regimes currently enjoy in terms of pandemic response may lead to increased repression in the long-term, especially in Morocco and Algeria where authorities show a recent pattern of imprisoning critics and activists. In Morocco, which over the last year has seen smaller-scale protests over socioeconomic conditions, heightened regime repression against critics and activists has led to significant criticism by domestic and foreign sources. However, this delay will mark only a brief respite for the regime, as regular protests will almost certainly continue once the outbreak is controlled. In the meantime, the population will closely watch the recently and controversially elected President Abdelmadjid Tebboune, whose socioeconomic and security policies during the crisis will be scrutinized. His lofty promise to not cut wages or the education and health sectors will be undermined by the announced plans to drastically reduce spending. For now, the Hirak movement will likely seek to organize on new platforms; hence, online activism will increase. However, the wide gap between the wealthy and poor will continue to be a source of popular discontent. Indeed, in the kingdom, which ranks lower than its neighbors in terms of healthcare,22 people are forced to pay high prices in private clinics. Furthermore, inequality is especially prevalent in rural areas; indeed, poverty rates amongst the rural population are twice as high as at the national level and the rural population accounts for 79. If different factions of the opposition come together, these fragmented protests may boil over to a full-blown movement demanding concrete and effective socioeconomic reforms. The government of Tunisia, which has a better healthcare system than Morocco and Algeria, will face contestation triggered by economic hardship.
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