Memorandum to Mark Lynott hiv infection rates by continent 1000 mg valacyclovir for sale, Supervisory Archeologist antiviral bell's palsy valacyclovir 1000 mg sale, Midwest Archeological Center antivirus windows vista generic valacyclovir 500 mg without prescription, dated November 5 examples of antiviral drugs generic 1000 mg valacyclovir free shipping, 1984. Publications of the Minnesota Historical Society, Minnesota Historical Archaeology Series No. Most of the site developments have involved only minor trenching that could be monitored either by a paraprofessional or by a professional archeologist. Such projects have included the burial of electrical lines in 1983 and 1986, lightning protection grounding in 1984, and landscape and site drainage modifications in 1987 (Noble 1992). There have been two investigations of the Truman Home basement, though one was not archeological in the strict sense of that word. The most recent archeological investigations carried out at the Truman Home were related to restoration of its three porches. Efforts revealed several features consistent with the known structural evolution of the house, including an abandoned cistern and remnant retaining wall under the kitchen porch. Addition of the Truman Farm unit in nearby Grandview, Missouri, expands the cultural resource obligations of the park many fold. It is known that historic archeological features associated with the farmstead are present on the grounds, and prehistoric resources also might occur within the approximate 5-acre parcel. Robert Bray (1983) conducted a limited archeological survey and testing project on the property for the Truman Farm Home Foundation in the summer of 1983, when the property was still in private hands. He recorded the locations of several cultural features relating to both extant and former farmstead structures, but Bray did not systematically survey the property nor specifically explore for prehistoric sites. Although nothing of consequence turned up while monitoring that work, Richner also made a cursory surface examination of the overall property and confirmed the presence of several relict foundations and other probable historic features. He recommended background historical research and a systematic archeological survey of the farm home tract. Subject: Depository for artifacts recovered from monitoring removal of fill at Harry S. Stadler, Scott 2001 Memorandum to Manager, Midwest Archeological Center, dated November 6. Subject: Investigations under front, south, and kitchen porches at the Truman home, Harry S Truman National Historic Site. Sudderth, Ed 1988 Memorandum to Chief, Midwest Archeological Center, dated July 11. Instead, work has focused on specific projects such as utility installation corridors and structural restoration impact zones. The earliest archeological work is the 1970 excavation of a single exploratory trench to determine the location and condition of the archeological remains of the Jesse Hoover Blacksmith Shop and the historic Penn Street Road bed (Husted 1970). Despite some disturbance from utility lines, the packed-clay floor of the blacksmith shop was found to be relatively well preserved. This was followed in 1971 with an extensive excavation of the blacksmith shop floor (Anderson 1973). The clay floor was left intact at the conclusion of fieldwork and the excavation was backfilled. When a similar blacksmith shop was constructed in the park in 1957, it was placed off the archeological site and treated as an exhibit, rather than a reconstruction. In 1983, limited archeological excavations and construction monitoring were undertaken in conjunction with restoration of the historic Mackey House. A cistern was recorded, and 19th- and early 20th-century artifact deposits were identified and studied (Sudderth 1992). In 1986, in anticipation of future foundation repair efforts, Richner (1986) conducted evaluative testing through excavation of exploratory backhoe trenches at the L. This work revealed that potentially significant archeological deposits and features were present at both sites. This was followed, in 1989, with archeological data collection at those structures in advance of major restoration actions (Richner 1997). Planned foundation replacement, utility installation, drainage improvement, and removal of "non-historic" additions shaped the location for the excavations with most work adjacent to the structures. Numerous features, including two cisterns, were recorded and a large inventory of late-19th- and early-20th-century cultural materials were collected. Subsequent monitoring during restoration (Frost 1989a, 1989b, 1989c) resulted in recording of an additional cistern, a well, and footings for an early porch. The goal of the project was to determine whether archeological resources existed within the proposed construction zones. Despite a long history of grounds alterations, including moving the cottage on two occasions and constructing and removing the attached cellars residence, intact historic grades were identified discovered. Concentrations of features and materials were observed, particularly in the cottage back yard. Shovel testing of the proposed water line route indicated that few, if any, archeological resources could be expected to exist in the lower elevations of the Vista although the possibility of intact resources occurring increased as one approached the cottage yard at the upper elevations (Hunt 1996). Archeological project needs at this park include expansion of survey coverage to the grounds away from the historic core area and evaluation of the grounds adjacent to the remaining, unstudied historic structures. A possible kiln site was recorded in another area of the monument, and about 33 percent of the Brick House site was excavated. Robert Nickel conducted a magnetic survey of the Brick Kiln site in 1979 (Weymouth 1983). An anomaly was located on the edge of Cub Creek, but it was concluded that it was unlikely to be associated with the Brick Kiln. Two smaller projects were conducted in the small area around the Freeman School in 1977 and 1979. No significant cultural remains were recorded during restoration activities at the school in 1977 (Stiger 1977). Preliminary examination of the magnetic data indicated the feasibility of locating small features away from the school building. The school was the focus of more intensive archeological study in 1984 and 1985 (Schoen 1986). A surprisingly large artifact assemblage was recovered during the work at the school in advance of limited grading activities to improve drainage and protect the soft brick structure. Also in 1985, the monument was the focus of a parkwide archeological survey effort (Schoen and Bleed 1986). Primary results included collecting new information regarding the Daniel Freeman Homestead and the recording a previously unknown prehistoric site on a terrace above Cub Creek. He also conducted an inventory of a proposed parking lot north of the Freeman School. No further on-ground archeological investigations have been undertaken at the monument, although three compliance related consultations or site visits have been done (Thiessen 1999, 2002a, 2002b) Although the park has received a parkwide survey, the intensity of the survey varied relative to surface exposure, and certain segments of the park-notably the Cub Creek floodplain and creek banks-have not been inventoried to date. Subject: Trip Report, visit to Homestead National Monument of America, May 17, 1999. Subject: Trip Report, visit to Homestead National Monument of America, March 29, 2002. Subject: Trip Report, visit to Homestead National Monument of America, June 5, 2002. The park was established in 1923 as Mound City Group National Monument in order to preserve and interpret the Mound City Group of prehistoric earthworks for future generations. Legislation enacted in 1980 and 1992 expanded the park to include four additional Hopewellian mound and earthwork complexes and resulted in a tenfold increase in the land area to be managed by the park. The 1992 legislation also changed the name of the park to Hopewell Culture National Historical Park to reflect this expansion. As of mid-2003, only the Mound City Group and Hopeton Works are fully under federal ownership, but large parts of the Hopewell, High Bank, and Seip sites have also been purchased. In addition, the 1992 legislation mandated that archeological surveys be conducted to ensure that the proposed boundaries of the park are adequate to protect significant resources, and to evaluate the desirability and feasibility of adding additional Hopewellian sites to the park. Despite a long and complex history of archeological investigation in the park, less than 20 percent of the authorized land area has been subjected to systematic archeological survey. The authorized boundaries of the park include five Hopewellian mound and earthwork complexes: Mound City Group, Hopeton Works, Hopewell Mound Group, High Bank Works, and Seip Earthworks. These sites consist of various configurations of earthen mounds and earthwork enclosures, some built on a truly monumental scale.
For small risks antiviral lip balm purchase valacyclovir 1000mg without a prescription, which do not have risk management departments hiv infection transmission generic valacyclovir 500 mg on line, the role of the intermediary in recommending the appropriate insurance policies is critically important hiv infection risk statistics valacyclovir 500mg with mastercard. The intermediary then places the coverage with an insurer that has the appropriate combination of price one step of the hiv infection process is the t-cell cheap 500mg valacyclovir, financial strength, and reputation for paying claims fairly. For larger risks with in-house risk management departments, the basics of coverage design usually are carried out by the buyer. The role of the intermediary is shifted away from basic risk management and more toward making recommendations in complex or sophisticated areas of risk management where the buyer may not have expertise. In the case of very large risks, coverage is likely to be syndicated over many insurers, requiring considerable skill on the part of the intermediary. These activities are undertaken when the intermediary acquires a new client, when a new risk emerges for an existing client, or when an existing client explores new alternatives. This can reflect dissatisfaction with the incumbent insurer or simply the desire to periodically check the market to determine whether rival insurers can offer better prices, coverages, or service. Intermediaries usually work with their clients to determine the circumstances and schedule by which existing business will be resubmitted to the market. The frequency with which accounts are put out for price quotations varies by the size of the account, the importance of services versus price, and the line of business under consideration. Commercial insurance policies can be broadly classified as serviceintensive and commoditized. Because the costs of switching insurers in such cases is relatively high, service-intensive accounts are put out to market less frequently than accounts which are less service-intensive. For example, such lines may be shopped systematically only every three to five years. In other lines of insurance, such as commercial property coverages, services tend to be less important and the lines tend to become "commoditized. Commoditized lines of business typically are put out to market every year, and switching of insurers occurs frequently. In addition, large accounts tend to be shopped more frequently than smaller accounts such as, say, commercial multiple peril policies bought by small businesses from independent agencies. The process of searching for insurers and seeking price quotations also varies according to the nature of the risk, the depth and breadth of the market, and the nature of the relationships established between the intermediary and the insurers. For example, to place the liability risks of a biotech company, the intermediary may seek out quotations from insurers that focus on this type of risk, as well as from other insurers with which the intermediary has a successful relationship and therefore can be relied on for competitive price quotations. Depending on the size of the risk and the breadth of the market, the intermediary may obtain three or four quotes, as many as a dozen, or even more. The process of seeking quotations and selecting a winner can be compared to an auction. However, the process through which the intermediary places business is significantly different from most auctions. The product the intermediary is placing is inherently multi-dimensional; and the process cannot be compared to simple auctions such as those for oil, telecom bandwidth, or with auctions for a valuable painting where the only thing the seller cares about is the price. Insurance is a complex product, for which price is only one of the attributes that are important to the buyer. The intermediary generally makes an attempt to "standardize" the terms offered by competing insurers. However, the offers made by competing insurers are often "counteroffers," which deviate in significant dimensions 100 from the terms originally specified. Thus, one insurer might be willing to offer coverage with lower policy limits; another may offer the requested limits but with different policy wording; another may exclude certain properties from coverage; etc. This variation in the coverage offered is compounded by heterogeneity in the financial condition and reputation of the responding insurers. Offers are likely to be obtained from insurers with different credit ratings and with differing reputations for claim settlement. Thus, the intermediary and clients are presented with a portfolio of competing offers which cannot be compared along only one dimension, i. The best offer is likely to represent a combination of judgments to be made and must reflect the risk tolerance of the client. The efficiency and fairness of this process cannot be verified by a simple rule such as "did the lowest price win With such a cacophony of information flying about, It is possible and normal for uncompetitive bids to arise from the natural frictions and imperfections of the bidding process. However, the underwriting information available to insurers is inevitably somewhat incomplete and imprecise. Such informational imperfections lead to the problem in insurance markets known as adverse selection. As the reader knows, this situation occurs when buyers have more information about their risk characteristics than insurers. Because insurers are not fully informed about individual risk characteristics, some buyers are charged prices that are too low relative to their risk characteristics, while other buyers are charged prices that are too high. Adverse selection occurs when those paying subsidized rates demand more insurance than those paying subsidies, leading to market instability. With the information transmitted by intermediaries, insurers can compete more vigorously for business and can price more competitively and fairly. Profit-based contingent commissions can be used to align incentives between intermediaries and new insurers, ensuring that new firms receive a flow of business with favorable underwriting characteristics. Thus, intermediaries have an important role to play in enhancing the efficiency of the insurance market to the benefit of all market participants. An aggressive growth posture obviously means a higher proportion of a book of business is made up of new business, which implies higher variance for the combined ratio, therefore greater underwriting risks. Without proper risk management, an aggressive growth strategy cannot be 101 sustained over a long period of time, and may result in significant underwriting losses. Many insurers operate in a cycle of rapid growth, followed by high loss ratios, followed by rate increases to alleviate underwriting losses, followed by declines in new business because the rate is not as competitive as before. Growth Rates and Underwriting Risks the following is taken from an article published by the Federal Reserve-Dallas. Southwest Economy Issue 4, July/August 2002 Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas Insurance: A Risk to the Economy By purchasing insurance, individuals and businesses share the risk of making investments and engaging in activities that they perceive as too risky to pursue on their own. Homeowners, automobile drivers, doctors and businesses can pay regular premiums to reduce the expense of an unpredictable event. Insurance is required for operating a business and, in most states, for purchasing a home or automobile. Recent changes in the industry have made this financial tool more expensive and more difficult to obtain, which could reduce investment and slow the economic recovery. Our society has developed mechanisms for reducing the amount of risk people bear from day to day. By transferring risk to others, these mechanisms make it easier for people to make decisions when there is uncertainty. To purchase insurance, an individual or business pays a fixed price to an insurer, who promises to pay a lump sum or periodic payments if a covered event happens within a specified time period (usually 12 months). For example, property owners buy insurance that will compensate them for a future loss, such as fire or theft. The cost of the insurance-the premium-is calculated so that, on average, it is sufficient to pay the present value of expected future claims plus administrative costs and profit. Actuaries estimate the risk involved and determine the appropriate premium based on the level of risk. Historical loss data are a good predictor of claims for personal automobile insurance, but catastrophic risks, such as earthquakes and hurricanes, are very difficult to predict. Still other losses emerge from court decisions that make insurance companies liable for claims the companies did not anticipate and did not price into the premium. Insurers are able to bear the risk of unpredictable events by pooling a diversified group of customers. To insure its own risk portfolio, the company issuing the policy typically sells a percentage of the risk to other insurance firms, referred to as reinsurance companies.
Where potential conflicts were detected hiv zero infection safe 500 mg valacyclovir, remedial measures to address them were taken and noted here antiviral use in pregnancy order valacyclovir 500 mg with amex. These disclosures were reviewed by the Guidelines Subcommittee chairs (for the task force chairs) anti viral pharyngitis purchase 1000mg valacyclovir mastercard, the task force chairs (for task force members) antiviral products generic 500 mg valacyclovir, and the Conflict of Interest Review Committee. They were determined to be sufficiently managed by disclosure to the task force and in this publication and no other remedial measures were considered necessary. The guideline discusses factors that might or should affect fractionation decisions. Use of boost should be based on shared decision-making that considers patient, tumor, and treatment factors, and the task force delineates specific subgroups in which it recommends or suggests use or omission of boost, along with dose recommendations. When planning, the volume of breast tissue receiving N105% of the prescription dose should be minimized and the tumor bed contoured with a goal of coverage with at least 95% of the prescription dose. Dose to the heart, contralateral breast, lung, and other normal tissues should be minimized. It is hoped the physician contribution to variability in care will therefore be decreased and decisions more appropriately individualized based on tumor factors, anatomic considerations, and patient preferences. See the full-text guideline supplement for a discussion of the evidence underpinning the recommendations. This guideline is endorsed by the Royal Australian and New Zealand College of Radiologists and the Society of Surgical Oncology. The group comprised 1 colead of the original guideline, 2 subcommittee members, and 2 additional topic experts (1 not involved in the original guideline). The work group recommended development of a new guideline to replace the original. The work group also recommended regional nodal treatment not be included because this topic merited its own guideline. A task force of radiation oncologists specializing in breast cancer, plus a medical physicist and a patient representative, was recruited. Through calls and e-mails, the task force formulated recommendation statements and narratives based on the literature review. An asterisk (*) indicates that the medical physics representative abstained from rating clinically focused recommendations. A prespecified threshold of 75% of raters selecting "agree" or "strongly agree" indicated consensus was achieved. If a recommendation statement did not meet this threshold, it was modified and resurveyed or deleted. Recommendations achieving consensus edited for other reasons were also resurveyed. Subsequently, 428 articles were eliminated and 100 articles included and abstracted. Grading of evidence, recommendations, and consensus methodology Guideline recommendation statements were developed using the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluations methodology 7,8 and, when possible, based on high-quality data. These guidelines are intended as a tool to promote appropriately individualized, shared decision-making between physicians and patients. Recommendation strength: Strong Quality of evidence: High Consensus: 100% radiation and trastuzumab or endocrine therapy received prior to or during radiation. The decision to offer hypofractionation should be independent of breast cancer laterality. A tumor bed boost is recommended for patients with invasive breast cancer who meet any of the following criteria: age 50 years with any grade, age 51 to 70 years with high grade, or a positive margin. Omitting a tumor bed boost is suggested in patients with invasive breast cancer who meet the following criteria: age N70 years with hormone receptor-positive tumors of low or intermediate grade resected with widely negative (2 mm) margins. The decision to use a tumor bed boost is recommended to be based on the clinical indications for a boost and be independent of the whole breast fractionation scheme. Physicians may reduce the boost dose or omit the boost for patients believed to be at higher risk for normal tissue toxicity from a boost because of a large boost 6 B. Smith et al Practical Radiation Oncology: Month 2018 volume relative to breast volume or inclusion of critical normal tissue in the boost radiated volume. Recommendation strength: Conditional Quality of evidence: Low Consensus: 86% treatment planning with a "field-in-field" technique is recommended as the initial treatment planning approach. The tumor bed should be contoured with a goal of achieving coverage of the tumor bed with at least 95% of the prescription dose. The whole breast volume may be contoured or defined clinically, with a goal of covering at least 95% of the whole breast volume with 95% of the whole breast prescription dose. Treatment plans should be individualized after consideration of many factors, including tumor characteristics, patient anatomy, and comorbidities. The heart should be contoured on the treatment planning computed tomography scan in accordance with Radiation Therapy Oncology Group guidelines. Deep inspiration breath hold, prone positioning, and/or heart blocks are recommended to minimize heart dose. Judicious tailoring of the whole breast dose coverage may be used to minimize the dose to the heart, provided that the tumor bed is remote from this region of the breast. Treatment techniques should also minimize dose to the contralateral breast, lung, and other normal tissues. The volume of breast tissue receiving greater than 105% of the prescription dose should be minimized. Patients should be positioned considering the reproducibility of the breast for treatment. For patients with a large breast size, prone positioning may be used to further minimize dose to normal tissues. Regardless of the positioning method, care should be taken to ensure that the contralateral breast is not in the treatment fields. When designing the frequency and type of imaging, imaging of the treatment beam ports may be used to minimize dose to normal tissues such as the heart. For patients with significant daily positioning variations, daily imaging may be used. Doses are lowest with kilovoltage (kV) planar techniques but the appropriate imaging method depends on the localization needs for the patient. Caution should be taken to minimize dose to critical normal tissues, including the heart, and to minimize the volume of ipsilateral breast included in the boost field. With supine positioning for boost treatment, no additional immobilization is recommended. When a tumor bed boost is to be administered, external beam treatment is recommended with a radiation modality that will minimize high radiation dose to nontarget tissue. Adherence to this guideline will not ensure successful treatment in every situation. This guideline should not be deemed inclusive of all proper methods of care or exclusive of other methods reasonably directed to obtaining the same results. To facilitate immobilization and minimize normal tissue exposure, resimulation for boost planning may be used to allow for repositioning or in patients with large seromas at the time of whole breast treatment planning. At this time, evidence is strongest in support of sequential administration of the boost after whole breast treatment; therefore, outside the context of trials, sequential boost is currently recommended. Recommendation strength: Conditional Quality of evidence: Moderate Consensus: 100% 8 B. Uptake and costs of hypofractionated vs conventional whole breast irradiation after breast conserving surgery in the United States, 2008-2013. Adoption of hypofractionated whole-breast irradiation for early-stage breast cancer: A National Cancer Data Base analysis. Adoption of hypofractionated radiation therapy for breast cancer after publication of randomized trials. Patterns and correlates of the use of hypofractionated whole-breast radiation therapy in the state of Michigan. Going from evidence to recommendations: the significance and presentation of recommendations. American Society of Clinical Oncology Clinical Practice Guidelines: Formal systematic reviewbased consensus methodology. This guideline cannot be assumed to apply to the use of these interventions performed in the context of clinical trials. This guideline was prepared on the basis of information available at the time the panel was conducting its research and discussions on this topic. Supply and demand for radiation oncology in the United States: Updated projections for 2015 to 2025.
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They are well suited to larger projects or project portfolios with large upfront costs anti viral herb generic valacyclovir 500 mg free shipping, where such access to capital is essential hiv infection from dried blood order valacyclovir 1000mg with visa. Governments hiv infection rates california generic valacyclovir 500 mg fast delivery, both national and subnational hiv infection in zimbabwe cheap 1000 mg valacyclovir with visa, can raise private debt capital to finance infrastructure by issuing bonds (in addition to traditional bank lending for project and operational finance). Labeling and standards, such as the Green Bond Principles, can ensure that the debt finance is used for green investments. To access debt financing, governments need to have budgetary, accounting, and financial management capabilities in place, as well as sufficient sources of funding to make repayments. Although the cost of finance will depend on the structure of the bond and the creditworthiness of the project and the issuer, this is generally a competitively priced source of long-term finance. The supply of green bonds is growing rapidly, and issuance is expected to reach between $185 billion to $210 billion in 2018. For the green bond market to be successful, their risk-return must be as attractive to investors as nongreen bonds. City and regional green bonds fund energy-efficiency, public transit, and social housing, while private real estate green bonds fund green buildings. Bonds issued by cities, municipal regions, and private real estate firms made up 13 percent of all green, social, and sustainability bonds in the first half of 2018. A total of 650 small projects have been financed through this method in India, South Africa, Colombia, Kenya, and Mexico, showing the scalability of this financing method. Municipal debt financing has not, however, been a panacea to infrastructure investment needs, even in high-income countries. Many municipalities have acquired substantial levels of debt through bond issuances and private loans, but capacity to collect revenues from taxation remains low, resulting in city bankruptcy. As a result, political support to implement municipal decentralization reforms is often scarce. According to the Inter-American Development Bank governance database, less than half of countries (42 percent) are recorded as devolving fiscal or legislative powers to subnational governments, and of these the depth of revenue-raising powers is highly variable. In a global study, only 16 percent of countries sampled were found to grant significant taxation autonomy to their local governments. Similarly, 56 percent of countries forbid any kind of borrowing by local governments, while only 22 countries (14 percent) allow borrowing without any restrictions. Only one in five C40 cities are able to borrow from their national government, and only one in four can issue municipal bonds. Cities with constrained access to capital markets can often access financing through international financial institutions or development banks instead. The 10-year bond, aligned with the Green Bond Principles, was launched in 2014 and is worth $143 million. Urban legislation defines the construction potential for real estate in every neighborhood, setting standard dimensions such as the type, size, and height allowed. These bonds are auctioned on the market and purchased by private investors or developers. The revenue is typically captured in a separate fund, which can be used in the specified zone for upfront construction costs, such as public transport, waste management and water piping, and long-term maintenance. To date, projects include investment into 150 new dual fuel and 30 biogas buses, the establishment of waste-to-energy generation sites, energy-efficiency measures in buildings (including the implementation of 42,000 smart meters), sewage effluent treatment, and water management initiatives such as water meter installations, reservoir upgrades, and water pressure management. In 2014, an auction held for potential investors was oversubscribed by 150 percent. This international and domestic publicity was critical in raising awareness of the importance of green bonds and boosting investor confidence. The bond has allowed the city to act on its commitment to respond to climate change while receiving a marketrelated financial return. These bodies were not able to access finance due to bond issuance fees, legal costs, and an inability to get a credit rating. Revenues from tax collections, including property tax, and project revenues provided extra funds. There was also a local service reserve fund, which comprised about 5 percent of the principal amount borrowed by each urban local body. The multilayered credit enhancement package is an essential element for successful replication in other cities as it creates a supportive environment for potential investors. Without this guarantee, cities would likely struggle to gain sufficient investment. To ensure the longevity of a pooled financing initiative, bonds should be reissued immediately after they mature to avoid depleting expertise and momentum and creating a lack of liquidity. This financing model has the potential to be applied in cities with buoyant housing markets. The mechanism relies on the purchase of permits to construct buildings, which means the model should only be applied to cities with a healthy and stable housing market anticipating rising land and property values. The success of these bonds also relies on considerable financial expertise in order to administer the system. This in turn enhances the quality of housing, jobs access, transport, and social benefits. These are special purpose agencies owned by local authorities that issue bonds in the capital markets, domestically and internationally, and on-lend the proceeds to smaller local authorities and cities that are members/ shareholders of the agency. The local government funding agency aggregation model allows smaller cities to tap into the deep pools of capital held by institutional investors in the $90 trillion bond market. This has been harnessed for green financing purposes since 2011, with all four Nordic agencies issuing at least $8. The Nordic green bond market, which in 2018 stands at about $33 billion of cumulative issuance,424 was kindled by Norwegian agency Kommunalbanken. In 2013 the agency offered a three-year $500 million green bond-the first of its kind in the Nordic countries. Cities and regions on their own account for $3 billion, or 9 percent, of the Nordic green bond market. This approach promotes infrastructure costsharing, with win-win outcomes for public and private stakeholders by creating private economic value that also benefits the location. There are a range of approaches that cities can take to capture these land value gains, including land value taxation, leveraging public land and property assets, tax increment financing, special assessments, transfer of development rights, betterment levies, land pooling, transport utility fees, impact fees, and air rights. These mechanisms can be promoted on both privately owned and public lands, depending on local context, but are most effective in burgeoning real estate markets. National legislation and frameworks are critical to enabling this local revenue stream, as higher levels of government often retain the power to set the parameters and tax rates. The city benefits from improved municipal revenues, in addition to having an improved urban environment and self-financed infrastructure, increasing its overall attractiveness for private financing. However, regulatory constraints, inadequate land controls and insecure property rights, deficient technology and data systems, and lack of knowledge and management capacity can hinder the implementation of this approach. Despite being largely associated with transport upgrades, land value capture opens financing opportunities for many more infrastructure investments, particularly when city governments integrate spatial planning policies and investment strategies with transport infrastructure. The Mass Transit Railway Corporation bought an area of land and invested in railway infrastructure, increasing the overall land value. Using this approach, it generated $11 billion from the sale of property, which was twice as much as it invested in the railway infrastructure. The corporation worked with the government to assess the cost of construction and purchase the right to develop properties above railway stations and depots for 20 years. Through public tender, the corporation allocated these property rights to private developers, who paid in full for the development costs, including the cost of construction of the residential and commercial properties. The corporation agreed to portion the profits generated by the sales if the private partners sold all units before the contractual deadline. This ongoing profit ensured the continued development of the railway line and was instrumental in the success of the land value capture approach. Replicating this method in other cities will require careful macroeconomic management.
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