The muscles associated with protraction diabetes oral medications names buy losartan 25 mg fast delivery, retraction diabetes prevention ribbon order losartan 25 mg visa, abduction diabetic diet quinoa purchase 50 mg losartan fast delivery, and adduction of the limbs have a secondary function diabetes mellitus type 2 risk for infection cheap 50 mg losartan mastercard, which is to assist with the flexion of the vertebral column. Running from one vertebra to the next, the intervertebral muscles are tiny muscles along the side of the vertebral column. The grand oblique muscle of the abdominal group, especially the internal oblique, is also an important player in this particular movement. The Rib Cage the pectoral muscles and the ventral serrate muscles play an important role in supporting and stabilizing the rib cage, or chest, in relation to the spine. The Neck Muscles Because the horse uses his head to counterbalance the weight in the rest of his body, the neck muscles play a very significant role in locomotion. Most obvious at the gallop, but also seen at the trot or walk, the downward swing of the head helps to lift the hind legs off the ground as the horse moves forward. The the The the The the The the The the The the longissimus nuchae muscle splenius (capitis and cervicis) muscle complexus muscle rhomboid muscle serrate muscle (cervical part) trapezius muscle (cervical part) rectus capitis ventralis muscle sternocephalicus muscle sternothyrohyoid and omohyoid muscle brachiocephalic muscle scalene muscle intervertebral muscles these muscles are attached along the spine from the base of the skull, down the cervical vertebrae to the thoracic vertebrae, and to the upper ribs, and the scapulas. The the The the The the The splenius muscle complexus muscle longissimus muscle of the neck trapezius muscle rhomboid muscle rectus capitis ventralis muscle intervertebral muscles As these muscles contract, they cause the cervical section of the spine to arch in extension, bringing the head upwards. All the muscles involved in the flexion of the neck are elongated during the extension movement, and through their eccentric contraction ensure stability and smoothness of action. The sternothyrohyoid and omohyoid muscles As these muscles contract, they cause the cervical section of the spine to bend forward in flexion, bringing the head downward. All the muscles involved in the extension of the neck are elongated during the flexion movement, and through their eccentric contraction ensure stability and smoothness of action. Lateral Flexion the muscles involved in the lateral flexion of the neck are (see figure 7. The the The the The the The rectus capitis muscle intervertebral muscles scalene muscle splenius cervicis muscle brachiocephalic muscle sternocephalicus muscle sternothyrohyoid and omohyoid muscles the unilateral concentric contraction of these muscles to one side will cause the head and the cervical spinal column to move to the same side. All the muscles involved on the opposite side of the neck are elongated, and through their eccentric contraction ensure stability and smoothness of action. Thus nature provides them with a mechanism that allows them to relax and rest while standing. The mechanism consists of ligaments and muscles that "lock" the main joints in the "stay" position. Both front and hind lower legs have identical mechanisms based on the suspensory ligament and the superficial and deep digital flexor muscles whose tendons possess check ligaments. The rest of the structure is kept in an extended position by a system of muscles (see figure 7. The ventral serrate muscle, both cervical and thoracic parts, mainly connects the foreleg to the body of the animal. The play between the cervical and thoracic parts keeps the scapula at a sloping angle, flexing the shoulder joint. The play between the biceps and the triceps muscles keeps the shoulder in extension. The rest of the leg is well-aligned and the knee joint is prevented from bending forward by the lacertus fibrosus, an inelastic tendon that joins the biceps tendon and the radial carpal extensor muscle and tendon. Tension from the biceps is transmitted through this system to assist knee fixation. It is assisted in this action by the gastrocnemius muscle, which acts to prevent the flexion of the hock. The play between the peroneus tertius muscle and the superficial digital flexor muscle ensures that the stifle and hock joints reciprocate their actions; for example, when the stifle flexes, the hock flexes as well. At "stay," the stifle joint is fixed by the contraction of the quadriceps muscle and a locking mechanism involving the patella, which comes to hook on top of the enlarged upper end of the inner trochlear ridge of the femur. A simple contraction of the quadriceps muscle and of the tensor fasciae latae muscle unlocks the patella, lifting it up and laterally off the ridge, thus freeing the stifle so the horse can move. This way, when massaging or assessing a horse in the stay position, you will know what muscles are involved. A solid knowledge of the muscles involved in the different movements of the horse will help you to better locate the muscular tension and possible muscle knots in your horse. The information contained in this chapter will also contribute to you better analysis of all the equine gaits. This better understanding of equine kinesiology will give you confidence when assessing the muscular fitness of your horse. With your knowledge of the bones, muscles, and kinesiology of the horse, we can now talk about the reasons why stretch moves should be part of your massage routine. Regular stretching will benefit your horse and will give you feedback on his condition. Here are some of the benefits of stretching exercises: Relaxation Reduction of overall muscle tension and stiffness Increased circulation of both blood and lymph fluids Increased oxygenation and nutrition in the tissues Increased elasticity of the muscles, tendons, and ligaments Increased flexibility and range of motion of the joints Improved coordination Reduction of muscle strain and ligament sprain Improvement of the stride length Improved reflex time response Note: If your horse has had any recent physical problems that affect the joints and muscles (a fall, direct trauma, kick), or surgery, consult your veterinarian or equine massage therapist before you start a stretching program. A strong prestretched muscle resists stress better than a strong un-stretched muscle. Stretching prevents ligament sprain and loosens the joint capsules; it makes the body feel more relaxed. It releases muscle contracture due to old scar tissue, helps relieve muscle pain from chronic tension, and reduces post-exercise soreness. Better elasticity of the muscles, tendons, and ligaments allows for freer, easier, more controlled, and quicker movements-all resulting in better coordination overall. Muscle stretching increases circulation, bringing more oxygen and nutrients to the body parts; it prevents inflammation and adhesion (scar tissue) formation, trigger point formation, and stress point buildup. You should apply them regularly with your various massage routines and include them in your massage treatments when applicable. Cerebral When we say "cerebral" we refer to the nervous system, which is controlled by the brain and spinal cord. One aspect of stretching can be called cerebral since the activity develops body awareness. And as you stretch various body parts, you help your horse focus on them and become mentally "in touch" with them. The stretching of muscles sends relaxation impulses via sensory nerves to the central nervous system and it will also decrease tension throughout the body. The animal will relax both physically and mentally, an important factor when dealing with animals that have been in accidents or are frightened or in pain. Furthermore, stretching will give you feedback on the condition of the muscle groups and ligament structures, particularly regarding their elasticity and tone. Muscles, tendons, and ligaments (eventually joint capsules) risk damage if stretched when cold. Stretching a horse after a warm-up period will limit the risk of injury from overstretching. Again, if your animal has had any recent physical problems or surgery, particularly of the joints and muscles, or if he has been inactive or sedentary for some time, consult your veterinarian or massage therapist before starting a stretching program. After warm-up and before heavier physical activity, stretching will trigger benefits such as loosening of the muscle fibers, vasodilation to bring more blood, and greater flexibility of the joints. If you need only to stretch a specific area during a localized massage treatment, that area can be warmed up with a hot towel (see chapter 4) or simply by massage (effleurages, wringings, compressions, or shakings). Stretching can be performed as a cool-down immediately after the main exercise or training program. This is actually the best time to stretch because the whole locomotor structure is warm. Stretching will increase circulation, promote relaxation, and cut down on any muscle contracture developed during an intense workout. How to Stretch To attain best results, you need to respect the structures you are working on. You should also be concerned with your own alignment and posture in order to work at your best. Stretching is not a competition; you do not have to push limits or see how far you can stretch each time you do it. The object of stretching is to relax muscle and ligament tension in order to promote freer movement and other benefits. To achieve all this, you need to stretch safely, starting with the easy stretch (see below) and building to a regular, deeper stretch.
H u m a n 4 A n a t o m y L a b M a n u a l Labs the next chapters in this manual are outlines of the weekly laboratories diabetes test toddler losartan 50 mg for sale. They are designed to help you accomplish three important tasks: 1) to prepare for the lab; 2) to benefit maximally from the time you spend in the lab; and 3) to summarize what you should learn during lab diabetes medications for elderly cheap 50 mg losartan free shipping. Each chapter follows a consistent layout that has the following topics or headings: Collaborative learning stations In the lab the students are divided into groups of six to eight people and each group is assigned a teaching assistant for that lab diabetes in dogs food recommendations buy cheap losartan 25 mg line. Each group will start at one of the collaborative learning stations signs of diabetes glucose levels discount 50mg losartan with amex, where they will explore and learn anatomy under the tutelage of a teaching assistant. By the end of the laboratory session each group will have visited each of the five learning stations. The learning stations are interactive, hands-on explorations of bones and human cadavers. The cadavers are professionally dissected to illustrate the relevant anatomy for the lab. Learning anatomy on the cadavers will broaden the perspective you gain from the two dimensional approach of lecture. During these sessions do not sit back passively, instead, actively become involved in the lab so you can maximize your learning experience. In each of the lab chapters that follows, the learning stations for that lab will be listed in this collaborative learning section. In this section, throughout the chapters that follow, you will find helpful hints to guide you as you prepare for the lab. Included in this section will be a list of the modules on the Human Anatomy Interactive Atlas online that you should study to prepare for the quiz. The quiz is a visual test that includes projected photographs identical to the photographs present on the Human Anatomy Interactive Atlas. These photographs show anatomical structures that you will study on dissections in the laboratory. By studying these pictures for the quiz, you will begin to familiarize yourself with the anatomy you need to identify on the cadavers. In addition to the quiz guide, other study tips, suggestions, and questions are presented in this section. This will help you maximize your preparation so you can get the most from your lab experience. Objectives during the lab this section outlines the main learning objectives for each lab period. Preview these objectives prior to the lab to help guide your study at the collaborative learning stations. After the lab, these objectives will serve as a checklist for what you should have accomplished. To prepare for the quiz use the information provided here in conjunction with the Human Anatomy Interactive Atlas online. The quiz will consist of a number of projected photographs from the Human Anatomy Interactive Atlas. Each photo will be projected onto a large screen at the front of the lab, where a teaching assistant will point to an anatomical structure on the picture and ask you to identify it. This section of the lab manual will list theHuman Anatomy Interactive Atlas module and the specific photos within that module that will be on the weekly quiz. Each anatomy module on the Human Anatomy Interactive Atlas has two labeling buttons - a "Basic Labels" button and an "All Labels" button. To prepare for the quiz each week, refer to the Human Anatomy Interactive Atlas module and the specific photos listed in this section. The Human Anatomy Interactive Atlas has been designed to allow you to easily prepare for the quiz. By selecting the "Basic Labels" button on the Human Anatomy Interactive Atlas, all the structures you need to know for the quiz will be marked with flashing circular markers. You can then quiz yourself by pointing and clicking on the markers to view the label. The "Basic Labels" button on the Human Anatomy Interactive Atlas covers the material that you will study in each lab. Notice that there is an "All Labels" button that you H u m a n 6 A n a t o m y L a b M a n u a l L a b s can use to quiz yourself later in the semester, as you begin to learn more and more anatomy. The "All Labels" button labels all structures on the cadaver photo, many of which you are not required to learn. For the weekly quiz, you need only to worry about identifying the "Basic Labels" associated with the photos listed in this section. Structures to Identify in the lab this section contains a complete list of structures that should be identified and learned during the lab. This is a reference list of all the structures that you will observe in the laboratory each week. This will also serve as a summary list of all the structures that you will be responsible for on the final practical examination. This can serve as a valuable checklist to use during the lab reviews as you prepare for the practical examination. In essence, this is a list of all the "Basic Labels" from all the photos within the modules on the Human Anatomy Interactive Atlas online. After the lab is over Towards the end of the semester, you will have the opportunity to attend review labs on weekends. This provides you with an opportunity to study the cadavers and reinforce the material that you are learning as you prepare for the final practical examination. After you have completed the lab, use this section to jot down notes on the structures and cadaver parts that you feel you would like to review in more detail. Being able to refer back to these notes will help you maximize your time during the weekend review labs. One of the major objectives you should keep in mind throughout the labs is to be constantly preparing for the lab practical examination. Review labs allow you to study the body parts on your own, emphasizing your own specific needs. You determine where you need to spend your time and you then spend it most effectively. If you will look back over this section before coming to the special review labs, you will find that you can maximize your learning efforts. Appendicular skeleton study of bones and landmarks of the lower limb 9 How to Prepare for the Lab By following the suggestions below you will come to lab better prepared to take advantage of the learning opportunities: 1. Study the Appendicular Skeleton module on the Human Anatomy Interactive Atlas online and read the section in the Human Anatomy Study Guide and Workbook (pages 3 - 20) that introduces you to the skeletal system and the appendicular skeleton. Beabletoidentifythedifferentviewsofeachbonepicturedonthe Human Anatomy Interactive Atlas online and in the Human Anatomy Study Guide and Workbook. Forexample,recognizethedifferencebetween an anterior view of the femur and a posterior view of the femur. Try to notice key landmarks on the bones that allow you to identify the anterior aspect of the bone form the posterior aspect of the bone. Be able to relate the appendicular bones to the terms of position covered in the Anatomical Nomenclature chapter of the lecture manual. It is important to become familiar with the basic terminology used to describe relationships between anatomical structures and the various parts of the body. For example, the radius is the lateral bone in the antebrachium and the head of the radius is at the proximal end of the bone. Learn the names of all the bones (including all the bones of the wrist, hand, ankle, and foot) and the landmarks marked with an "*" on the bone illustrations in this chapter. Be able to identify these landmarks on the photos of the bones on the Human Anatomy Interactive Atlas online. As you are studying the bones and their landmarks, try to palpate them on your own body. Gaining an understanding of where these landmarks are on your own body can help you with the learning process. Describe the basic design of the skeletal system and understand its role in the human body. Be able to orient the bones as they would appear in the fully articulated skeleton.
These motions involve rotation of the scapula around a point inferior to the scapular spine and are produced by combinations of muscles acting on the scapula diabetes type 1 gene therapy purchase 50mg losartan with mastercard. During superior rotation diabetes albuminuria definition buy 25 mg losartan with mastercard, the glenoid cavity moves upward as the medial end of the scapular spine moves downward early diabetes signs you shouldn't ignore cheap losartan 50mg with mastercard. Without superior rotation of the scapula diabete diagnosis cheap losartan 25mg fast delivery, the greater tubercle of the humerus would hit the acromion of the scapula, thus preventing any abduction of the arm above shoulder height. Superior rotation of the scapula is thus required for full abduction of the upper limb. Superior rotation is also used without arm abduction when carrying a heavy load with your hand or on your shoulder. You can feel this rotation when you pick up a load, such as a heavy book bag and carry it on only one shoulder. To increase its weight-bearing support for the bag, the shoulder lifts as the scapula superiorly rotates. Inferior rotation occurs during limb adduction and involves the downward motion of the glenoid cavity with upward movement of the medial end of the scapular spine. Opposition and Reposition Opposition is the thumb movement that brings the tip of the thumb in contact with the tip of a finger. Thumb opposition is produced by a combination of flexion and abduction of the thumb at this joint. Returning the thumb to its anatomical position next to the index finger is called reposition. Name, describe, and provide examples of each of the major classes of synovial joints: ball-and-socket, pivot, saddle, hinge, plane, and condylar. For each structural class of joint, name the defining structural feature and describe the amount of movement allowed by the joint type. With a partner, create a series of short videos (less than 10 seconds each) that clearly demonstrates each of the following common body movements at synovial joints. Lesson 8: the Lower Limb Bones Created by Gabriella Sandberg Introduction Because of our upright stance, different functional demands are placed upon the upper and lower limbs. The bones of the lower limbs are adapted for weight-bearing support and stability, as well as for body locomotion via walking or running. Identify bones and bone features of the lower limb on an articulated skeleton, disarticulated bones, bone models, and/or on a picture/diagram Background Information the Pelvic Girdle the pelvic girdle (hip girdle) is formed by a pair of hip bones or os coxae bone (coxa = "hip", singular). Each hip bone, in turn, is firmly joined to the axial skeleton via its attachment to the sacrum of the vertebral column. The right and left hip bones are attached to each other anteriorly at a fibrous joint known as the pubic symphysis. The bony pelvis is the entire structure formed by the two hip bones, the sacrum, and the coccyx. The coccyx, also known as the tail bone, is attached inferiorly to the sacrum (Figure 8. Unlike the bones of the pectoral girdle of the arm, which are highly mobile to enhance the range of upper limb movements, the bones of the pelvis are strongly united to each other to form a largely immobile, weightbearing structure. This is important for stability because it enables the weight of the body to be easily transferred laterally from the vertebral column, through the pelvic girdle and hip joints, and into either lower limb whenever the other limb is not bearing weight. Thus, the immobility of the pelvis provides a strong foundation for the upper body as it rests on top of the mobile lower limbs. The Hip Bones the paired hip bones are the large, curved bones that form the lateral and anterior aspects of the pelvis. Each adult hip bone is formed by three separate bones that fuse together during the late teenage years. These names are retained and used to define the three regions of the adult hip bone. The ilium is the fan-like, superior region of the hip bone forming the largest part of the hip bone. The ilium is firmly connected to the sacrum at the largely immobile sacroiliac joint (see Figure 8. The pubis curves medially, where it joins to the pubis of the opposite hip bone at a specialized joint called the pubic symphysis. The rounded, anterior termination of the iliac crest is the anterior superior iliac spine. Inferior to the anterior superior iliac spine is a rounded protuberance called the anterior inferior iliac spine. Posteriorly, the iliac crest curves downward to terminate as the posterior superior iliac spine. Muscles and ligaments surround but do not cover this bony landmark, thus sometimes producing a depression seen as a "dimple" located on the lower back. This is located at the inferior end of a large, roughened area called the auricular surface of the ilium. The auricular surface articulates with the auricular surface of the sacrum to form the sacroiliac joint. Both the posterior superior and posterior inferior iliac spines serve as attachment points for the muscles and very strong ligaments that support the sacroiliac joint. The shallow depression located on the anteromedial (internal) surface of the upper ilium is called the iliac fossa. The inferior margin of this space is formed by the arcuate line of the ilium, the ridge formed by the pronounced change in curvature between the upper and lower portions of the ilium. The large, inverted Ushaped indentation located on the posterior margin of the lower ilium is called the greater sciatic notch. Ischium the ischium forms the posterolateral portion of the hip bone (see Figure 8. This serves as the attachment for the posterior thigh muscles and also carries the weight of the body when sitting. You can feel the ischial tuberosity if you wiggle your pelvis against the seat of a chair. Projecting superiorly and anteriorly from the ischial tuberosity is a narrow segment of bone called the ischial ramus. The slightly curved posterior margin of the ischium above the ischial tuberosity is the lesser sciatic notch. The bony projection separating the lesser sciatic notch and greater sciatic notch is the ischial spine. The superior pubic ramus is the segment of bone that passes laterally from the pubic body to join the ilium. The narrow ridge running along the superior margin of the superior pubic ramus is the pectineal line of the pubis. The pubic body is joined to the pubic body of the opposite hip bone by the pubic symphysis. The pubic arch is the bony structure formed by the pubic symphysis, and the bodies and inferior pubic rami of the adjacent pubic bones. Together, these form the single ischiopubic ramus, which extends from the pubic body to the ischial tuberosity. The inverted V-shape formed as the ischiopubic rami from both sides come together at the pubic symphysis is called the subpubic angle. The leg contains thirty bones which are described below: Femur - the single bone of the thigh Patella - the kneecap Tibia - the larger, weight-bearing bone located on the medial side of the lower leg Fibula - the thin bone on the lateral side of the lower leg Tarsal bones - seven bones found in the posterior foot. The rounded, proximal end is the head of the femur, which articulates with the acetabulum of the hip bone to form the hip joint. The fovea capitis is a minor indentation on the medial side of the femoral head that serves as the site of attachment for the ligament of the head of the femur. This ligament spans the femur and acetabulum but is weak and provides little support for the hip joint. The greater trochanter is the large, upward, bony projection located above the base of the neck. Multiple muscles that act across the hip joint attach to the greater trochanter, which, because of its projection from the femur, gives additional leverage to these muscles.
Habitat blood sugar urine strips discount 25 mg losartan mastercard, biology blood sugar blood pressure 25mg losartan for sale, and fisheries: A neritic diabetes insipidus edema buy discount losartan 50mg on-line, demersal species occurring predominantly on sandy to muddy bottoms on the continental shelf diabetic diet rules discount 25 mg losartan free shipping. This species preys upon molluscs (including other cephalopods), crustacean and small fishes. It is a species well represented on the continental shelf along its entire geographical range of distribution but it never showed high abundant concentrations. In the northern part of its geographic distribution it is caught by otter trawlers in Sepia officinalis fishery off the Canary Islands and Morocco waters. Distribution: Eastern Atlantic from the Canary Islands and Western Sahara to Cape Santa Maria, Angola (14°S). Diagnostic characters: Mantle elongated and oval-shaped, its anterior dorsal margin projecting strongly in an acute, sharp angle. Tentacular club short, broad, blunt distally; swimming keel extending slightly along the stalk; dorsal and protective membranes united at proximal base of club, extending slightly along stalk; 6 to 8 suckers of the manus in oblique, transverse rows; a few moderately enlarged suckers dorsally; 3 greatly enlarged suckers in the second or the third series, counted from the dorsal side of the club. Left ventral arm hectocotylized in for two-thirds of its length, with 4 or 5 normal basal suckers followed by 9 to 11 rows of minute, widely space suckers arranged in zig-zag pattern; distal third of the hectocotylus with 4 rows of normal suckers. Cuttlebone about 2 times longer than wide and delicate; its outer cone with 2 posterior small wings; spine replaced by a small crest; dorsal surface smooth. Size: Maximum dorsal mantle length in females and males are 90 and 72 mm, respectively. Males are, however, more precocious than females; (after Adam, 1952) (ventral view) males of 25 mm mantle length were observed totally mature whereas the tentacular club cuttlebone dorsal view first mature female measured 40 mm in mantle length. The spawning season extends almost throughout the year in Galicia (northwest Spain) and off West Africa, while it extends from March to October in the western Mediterranean. Its spatial distribution and abundance changes seasonally, largely as a consequence of changes in depth distribution and resultant migration from neighbouring areas. Females have longer tentacle clubs and ingest more food than males at any given size. Distribution: the entire Mediterranean Sea and in the eastern Atlantic from 55°N to 15°S. Sepiidae 413 Sepia elobyana Adam, 1941 Frequent synonyms / misidentifications: None / None. Left ventral arm with 7 or 8 rows in proximal half with minute suckers, widely spaced suckers on fleshy ridges. However, it is possible that this species was caught as bycatch in the trawl fisheries along the West African coast. Distribution: Eastern Atlantic along West African coast from Senegal to Elobey Islands, Equatorial Guinea. Remarks: the species is known from very few animals (1 male from the Gulf of Guinea, holotype, and 4 males and 1 female from Senegal). The tentacular club suckers in the holotype differ from the material caught in Senegalese waters by having some enlarged suckers and were thought by Adam (1952) to be anomalous. The differences in the relative width of the cuttlebone in the holotype and in a male specimen from Senegal strongly suggest different species. If the combined specimens constitute more than 1 species, the name must remain with the holotype, which clearly has some enlarged club suckers. Left ventral arm of males hectocotylized over proximal half, with transversely wrinkled area separating 7 pairs of dorsal suckers and 14 ventral suckers in a single series. Cuttlebone form rhomboid, frequently pink dorsally, with blunt posterior knob, spine absent. Diagnostic characters: Anterior dorsal margin of the mantle projecting in an obtuse, blunt angle. Tentacular club long with 5 or 6 suckers in transverse rows; suckers differ in size: 5 or 6 median suckers of proximal rows twice diameter of rest. Cuttlebone anteriorly very acuminate; its striated zone extends over 47% of its length; cuttlebone width is 35% of mantle length and its thickness 12% of mantle length; its spine is never covered by chitin. Growth rates of 26 mm per month up to a length of 10 cm, slowing down to 21 mm per month between 10 and 35 cm mantle length were observed. However, the main fraction of the total catches in that area can be attributed to Sepia hierredda, which is mainly fished by Moroccan in the south, Mauritanian and Senegalese boats, as well as by trawlers from China and Korea. Along the coast of Senegal, the cuttlefish is mainly caught at depths of 7 to 16 m by canoes using jigs and traps and from 10 to 150 m depth by trawlers. Remarks: this species has been long considered as a subspecies of Sepia officinalis. Common sizes in the English Channel range from 10 to 22 cm mantle length and between 15 and 25 cm mantle length in the northwestern coasts of Africa. Habitat, biology, and fisheries: A nektobenthic, neritic species occurring predominantly on sandy and muddy bottoms mainly covered by algae and marine grasses (Zostera and Posidonia). Eggs, normally black, are attached in grape-like clusters to different substrata fixed on the bottom. Food mainly consists of small crabs, shrimps, demersal fishes, cephalopods and polychaeta. Length at first maturity is about 13 cm mantle length in females, and between 12 and 14 cm in males in northwestern African waters. Males may carry up to 1 400 spermatophores, females between 150 to 4 000 eggs, depending on their size. Predators of common cuttlefish included cephalopods, sharks, sparids and other large demersal fish, marine mammals and birds at different stages of its life history. Although various parasites are known in juvenile and adult Sepia officinalis, most of them (except the coccidian Aggregata eberthi) do not appear to be very important as mortality factors at prereproductive stages. Its range of salinity in wild conditions varies from Sepiidae 25 to 40, but it can survive for some time at salinities around 18 if slowly acclimatized, although normal embryonic development requires salinities above 25. In large-scale fisheries is primarily caught by otter and beam trawlers, either as a target species or as bycatch to demersal finfish. In small-scale fisheries it is caught by gillnets and trammel nets as well as a great variety of highly selective gears, such as spears, pots, traps, lures, jigs and luring the males with a live female attached to a thin line. The species has been successfully reared in aquaculture experiments of medium scale. Distribution: the species is distributed from the eastern Atlantic to the southwest Baltic Sea (only occasional incursions) and from the North Sea to the northwestern coast of Africa. However, broader areas of overlap were reported in earlier times (see Ikeda, 1972 and Delgado de Molina Acevedo et al. This resulted in confusion about the maximum size for the species, since disagreement occurred about the identity of the (then) sub-species examined. According to recently given range distribution limits, the maximum size ever recorded for S. Tentacular club short, broad, blunt distally; swimming keel extends proximally beyond base of club; 5 or 6 suckers of the manus in oblique, transverse rows; the medial longitudinal row with 3 greatly and 2 moderate enlarged suckers. Left ventral arm hectocotylized in two-thirds to three-fourths of its length, with 3 normal basal suckers followed by rows of minute, widely space suckers arranged in zig-zag pattern; distal third of the hectocotylus with a dozen of transverse rows of 4 minute and normal suckers to tip of the arm. Cuttlebone relatively robust; its width is one-third of its length; posterior spine very pronounced and projecting out of the posterior part of the mantle; dorsal surface rose or orange coloured to one-third of its length with a faint medial groove. Habitat, biology, and fisheries: A nektobenthic species occurring over muddy and detritus-rich continental shelf and slope areas. In the western Mediterranean length at first maturity is 50 mm in males and 78 mm in females, whereas in West Africa populations males reach sexual maturity at about 40 to 50 mm mantle length and females at 70 mm mantle length. The spawning season extends almost throughout the year with a period of higher intensity from early summer to autumn. Its spatial distribution and abundance changes seasonally, largely as a consequence of changes in depth distribution. The eggs are laid in clusters of 30 to 40 (diameter 7 to 9 mm) attached to sponges on muddy bottoms. Hatchlings measure 6 to 7 mm mantle length; specimens of 36 to 40 mm mantle length are 9 month old at 10° to 20°C. Females have longer tentacle clubs and ingest more food than females at any given size.
This dislocation injury of the acromioclavicular joint is known as a "shoulder separation" and is common in contact sports such as hockey blood glucose when sick purchase losartan 50mg free shipping, football diabetes symptoms kids causes losartan 25 mg otc, or martial arts managing diabetes 3 month cheap losartan 25mg on line. These consist of the arm (between the shoulder and elbow joints) diabetes jewelry 50mg losartan otc, the forearm (between the elbow and wrist joints), and the hand (distal to the wrist). The humerus is the single bone of the upper arm, and the ulna (medially) and the radius (laterally) are the paired bones of the forearm. The base of the hand contains eight bones, each called a carpal bone, and the palm of the hand is formed by five bones, each called a metacarpal bone. The head articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral (shoulder) joint. Located on the lateral side of the proximal humerus is an expanded bony area called the greater tubercle. The smaller lesser tubercle of the humerus is found on the anterior aspect of the humerus. Both the greater and lesser tubercles serve as attachment sites for muscles that act across the shoulder joint. Passing between the greater and lesser tubercles is the narrow intertubercular groove (sulcus), which is also known as the bicipital groove because it provides passage for a tendon of the biceps brachii muscle. The surgical neck is located at the base of the expanded, proximal end of the humerus, where it joins the narrow shaft of the humerus. The deltoid tuberosity is a roughened, V-shaped region located on the lateral side in the middle of the humerus shaft. It articulates with the radius and ulna bones of the forearm to form the elbow joint. The prominent bony projection on the medial side is the medial epicondyle of the humerus. The much smaller lateral epicondyle of the humerus is found on the lateral side of the distal humerus. The roughened ridge of bone above the lateral epicondyle is the lateral supracondylar ridge. All of these areas are attachment points for muscles that act on the forearm, wrist, and hand. The powerful grasping muscles of the anterior forearm arise from the medial epicondyle, which is thus larger and more robust than the lateral epicondyle that gives rise to the weaker posterior forearm muscles. The distal end of the humerus has two articulation areas, which join the ulna and radius bones of the forearm to form the elbow joint. The more medial of these areas is the trochlea, a spindle- or pulley-shaped region (trochlea = "pulley"), which articulates with the ulna bone. Immediately lateral to the trochlea is the capitulum ("small head"), a knob-like structure located on the anterior surface of the distal humerus. Superior to the trochlea is the coronoid fossa, which receives the coronoid process of the ulna, and above the capitulum is the radial fossa, which receives the head of the radius when the elbow is flexed. Similarly, the posterior humerus has the olecranon fossa, a larger depression that receives the olecranon process of the ulna when the forearm is fully extended. It runs parallel to the radius, which is the lateral bone of the forearm (Figure 13. The proximal end of the ulna resembles a crescent wrench with its large, Cshaped trochlear notch. This region articulates with the trochlea of the humerus as part of the elbow joint. The inferior margin of the trochlear notch is formed by a prominent lip of bone called the coronoid process of the ulna. Just below this on the anterior ulna is a roughened area called the ulnar tuberosity. To the lateral side and slightly inferior to the trochlear notch is a small, smooth area called the radial notch of the ulna. This area is the site of articulation between the proximal radius and the ulna, forming the proximal radioulnar joint. The posterior and superior portions of the proximal ulna make up the olecranon process, which forms the bony tip of the elbow. The ulna is located on the medial side of the forearm, and the radius is on the lateral side. The lateral side of the shaft forms a ridge called the interosseous border of the ulna. This is the line of attachment for the interosseous membrane of the forearm, a sheet of dense connective tissue that connects the ulna and radius bones. Projecting from the posterior side of the ulnar head is the styloid process of the ulna, a short bony projection. This serves as an attachment point for a connective tissue structure that connects the distal ends of the ulna and radius. In anatomical position, with the elbow fully extended and the palms facing forward, the arm and forearm do not form a straight line. It allows the forearm and hand to swing freely or to carry an object without hitting the hip. The Radius the radius runs parallel to the ulna, on the lateral side of the forearm (Figure 13. The small depression on the surface of the head articulates with the capitulum of the humerus as part of the elbow joint, whereas the smooth, outer margin of the head articulates with the radial notch of the ulna at the proximal radioulnar joint. The neck of the radius is the narrowed region immediately below the expanded head. Inferior to this point on the medial side is the radial tuberosity, an oval-shaped, bony protuberance that serves as a muscle attachment point. The shaft of the radius is slightly curved and has a small ridge along its medial side. This ridge forms the interosseous border of the radius, which, like the similar border of the ulna, is the line of attachment for the interosseous membrane that unites the two forearm bones. The distal end of the radius has a smooth surface for articulation with two carpal bones to form the radiocarpal joint or wrist joint (Figure 13. This shallow depression articulates with the head of the ulna, which together form the distal radioulnar joint. The lateral end of the radius has a pointed projection called the styloid process of the radius. This provides attachment for ligaments that support the lateral side of the wrist joint. Compared to the styloid process of the ulna, the styloid process of the radius projects more distally, thereby limiting the range of movement for lateral deviations of the hand at the wrist joint. The Carpal Bones the wrist and base of the hand are formed by a series of eight small carpal bones (see Figure 13. The carpal bones are arranged in two rows, forming a proximal row of four carpal bones and a distal row of four carpal bones. The bones in the proximal row, running from the lateral (thumb) side to the medial side, are the scaphoid ("boat-shaped"), lunate ("moon-shaped"), triquetrum ("three-cornered"), and pisiform ("peashaped") bones. The small, rounded pisiform bone articulates with the anterior surface of the triquetrum bone. The pisiform thus projects anteriorly, where it forms the bony bump that can be felt at the medial base of your hand. The distal bones (lateral to medial) are the trapezium ("table"), trapezoid ("resembles a table"), capitate ("head-shaped"), and hamate ("hooked bone") bones. The hamate bone is characterized by a prominent bony extension on its anterior side called the hook of the hamate bone. A helpful mnemonic for remembering the arrangement of the carpal bones is "So Long To Pinky, Here Comes the Thumb. This can be seen in the radiograph (X-ray image) of the hand that shows the relationships of the hand bones to the skin creases of the hand (Figure 13. Within the carpal bones, the four proximal bones are united to each other by ligaments to form a unit. Only three of these bones, the scaphoid, lunate, and triquetrum, contribute to the radiocarpal joint.
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